Steam is a video game digital distribution service and storefront by Valve. It was launched as a software client in September as a way for Valve to provide automatic updates for their games, and expanded to distributing and offering third-party game publishers ‘ titles in late Steam offers various features, like digital rights management DRM , game server matchmaking and anti-cheat measures , and social networking and game streaming services.

It provides the user with automatic game updating, saved game cloud synchronization, and community features such as friends messaging, in-game chat and a community market. Valve released a freely available application programming interface API called Steamworks in , which developers can use to integrate Steam’s functions into their products, including in-game achievements, microtransactions , and user-created content support. Mobile apps to access online Steam features were first released for iOS and Android in The platform also offers other digital content and Valve gaming hardware, including productivity software, game soundtracks, videos and VR headset Valve Index.

Valve had entered into a publishing contract with Sierra Studios in ahead of the release of Half-Life. The contract had given some intellectual property IP rights to Sierra in addition to publishing control. Valve published additional games through Sierra, including expansions for Half-Life and Counter-Strike. Around , as Valve started work on Half-Life 2 and the new Source engine , they became concerned about their contract with Sierra related to the IP rights, and the two companies negotiated a new contract by The new contract eliminated Sierra’s IP rights and gave Valve rights to digital distribution of its games.

Valve was looking for a way to better update its published games as provide downloadable patches for multiplayer games resulted in most of the online user base disconnecting for several days until players had installed the patch. Valve decided to create a platform that would update games automatically and implement stronger anti-piracy and anti-cheat measures.

Steam’s development began in , with working names for the platform being “Grid” and “Gazelle”. Prior to the announcement of Steam, Valve found that Sierra had been distributing their games in PC cafes which they claimed was against the terms of the contract, and took Sierra and their owners, Vivendi Games , to court in Sierra countersued, asserting that with the announcement of Steam, Valve had been working to undermine the contract to offer a digital storefront for their games, directly competing with Sierra.

The case was initially ruled in Valve’s favor, allowing them to leave the contract due to the breach and seek other publishing partners for retail copies of its games while continuing their work on Steam. Between 80, and , players participated in the beta test before Steam’s official release on September 12, In , the World Opponent Network was shut down and replaced by Steam, with any online features of games that required it ceasing to work unless they converted over to Steam.

In November , Half-Life 2 was the first game to be offered digitally on Steam and require installation of the Steam client to play for retail copies.

During this time users faced problems attempting to play the game. By May of that year, 13 million accounts had been created on the service, and games were for sale on the platform. Electronic Arts removed some of its games from Steam because of restrictive terms of service in and launched Mass Effect 3 only on its Origin service in Steam’s primary service is to allow its users to download games and other software that they have in their virtual software libraries to their local computers as game cache files GCFs.

Valve intended to “make DRM obsolete” as games released on Steam had traditional anti-piracy measures, including the assignment and distribution of product keys and support for digital rights management software tools such as SecuROM or non-malicious rootkits. The CEG technology creates a unique, encrypted copy of the game’s executable files for the given user, which allows them to install it multiple times and on multiple devices, and make backup copies of their software.

Normally this is done while connected to the Internet following the user’s credential validation, but once they have logged into Steam once, a user can instruct Steam to launch in a special offline mode to be able to play their games without a network connection. In September , Valve added support for Steam Cloud, a service that can automatically store saved game and related custom files on Valve’s servers; users can access this data from any machine running the Steam client.

Users can disable this feature on a per-game and per-account basis. Steam also offers a framework for selling and distributing downloadable content DLC for games. In September , Steam introduced the ability to share most games with family members and close friends by authorizing machines to access one’s library.

Authorized players can install the game locally and play it separately from the owning account. Users can access their saved games and achievements providing the main owner is not playing.

When the main player initiates a game while a shared account is using it, the shared account user is allowed a few minutes to either save their progress and close the game or purchase the game for his or her own account.

In accordance with its acceptable use policy , Valve retains the right to block customers’ access to their games and Steam services when Valve’s Anti-Cheat VAC software determines that the user is cheating in multiplayer games, selling accounts to others, or trading games to exploit regional price differences. The Steam client includes a digital storefront called the Steam Store through which users can purchase computer games.

Once the game is bought, a software license is permanently attached to the user’s Steam account, allowing them to download the software on any compatible device. Game licenses can be given to other accounts under certain conditions. Content is delivered from an international network of servers using a proprietary file transfer protocol. Since , the Steam Translation Server project offers Steam users to assist with the translation of the Steam client, storefront, and a selected library of Steam games for twenty-eight languages.

In February , Steam began to open similar options for in-game item purchases for third-party games. In conjunction with developers and publishers, Valve frequently provides discounted sales on games on a daily and weekly basis, sometimes oriented around a publisher, genre, or holiday theme, and sometimes allow games to be tried for free during the days of these sales.

The site normally offers a large selection of games at discount during its annual Summer and Holiday sales, including gamification of these sales to incentive users to purchase more games. Users of Steam’s storefront can also purchase games and other software as gifts to be given to another Steam user.

Prior to May , users could purchase these gifts to be held in their profile’s inventory until they opted to gift them. However, this feature enabled a gray market around some games, where a user in a country where the price of a game was substantially lower than elsewhere could stockpile giftable copies of games to sell to others, particularly in regions with much higher prices.

The Steam store also enables users to redeem store product keys to add software from their library. The keys are sold by third-party providers such as Humble Bundle in which a portion of the sale is given back to the publisher or distributor , distributed as part of a physical release to redeem the game, or given to a user as part of promotions, often used to deliver Kickstarter and other crowd funding rewards.

A grey market exists around Steam keys, where less reputable buyers purchase a large number of Steam keys for a game when it is offered for a low cost, and then resell these keys to users or other third-party sites at a higher price, generating profit for themselves.

In , Steam began to accept player reviews of games. Other users can subsequently rate these reviews as helpful, humorous, or otherwise unhelpful, which are then used to highlight the most useful reviews on the game’s Steam store page. Steam also aggregates these reviews and enables users to sort products based on this feedback while browsing the store.

In particular, Valve announced in March that it mark reviews they believe are “off-topic” as a result of a review bomb, and eliminate their contribution to summary review scores; the first such games they took action on with this was the Borderlands games after it was announced Borderlands 3 would be a timed-exclusive to the Epic Games Store. During mid, Valve began to offer free-to-play games, such as Global Agenda , Spiral Knights and Champions Online ; this offer was linked to the company’s move to make Team Fortress 2 a free-to-play title.

Later that year, Valve added the ability to trade in-game items and “unopened” game gifts between users. Steam Coupons can be provided to users by developers and publishers; users can trade these coupons between friends in a similar fashion to gifts and in-game items. For example, Team Fortress 2 —the first game supported at the beta phase—incurred both fees. Full support for other games was expected to be available in early In October , Steam introduced non-gaming applications, which are sold through the service in the same manner as games.

Valve have also added the ability for publishers to rent and sell digital movies via the service, with initially most being video game documentaries. Entertainment offering the Mad Max films alongside the September release of the game based on the series , [] Lionsgate entered into agreement with Valve to rent over one hundred feature films from its catalog through Steam starting in April , with more films following later.

While Steam allows developers to offer demo versions of their games at any time, Valve worked with Geoff Keighley in in conjunction with The Game Awards to hold a week-long Steam Game Festival to feature a large selection of game demos of current and upcoming games, alongside sales for games already released. A Steam Points system and storefront was added in June , which mirrored similar temporary points systems that had been used in prior sales on the storefront.

Users earn points through purchases on Steam or by receiving community recognition for helpful reviews or discussion comments. These points do not expire as they had in the prior sales, and can be redeemed in the separate storefront for cosmetics that apply to the user’s profile and chat interface.

The popularity of Steam has led to the service’s being attacked by hackers. An attempt occurred in November , when Valve temporarily closed the community forums, citing potential hacking threats to the service. Days later, Valve reported that the hack had compromised one of its customer databases, potentially allowing the perpetrators to access customer information; including encrypted password and credit card details.

At that time, Valve was not aware whether the intruders actually accessed this information or discovered the encryption method, but nevertheless warned users to be alert for fraudulent activity.

Valve added Steam Guard functionality to the Steam client in March to protect against the hijacking of accounts via phishing schemes, one of the largest support problems Valve had at the time. Once locked, activity by that account on other computers must first be approved by the user on the locked computer. In , between Steam-based game inventories, trading cards, and other virtual goods attached to a user’s account, Valve stated that the potential monetary value had drawn hackers to try to access user accounts for financial benefit, and continue to encourage users to secure accounts with Steam Guard, when trading was introduced in To improve security, the company announced that new restrictions would be added in March , under which day holds are placed on traded items unless they activate, and authenticate with Steam Guard Mobile Authenticator.

In July , a bug in the software allowed anyone to reset the password to any account by using the “forgot password” function of the client. High-profile professional gamers and streamers lost access to their accounts. In April , Valve added new privacy settings for Steam users, who are able to set if their current activity status is private, visible to friends only, or public; in addition to being able to hide their game lists, inventory, and other profile elements in a similar manner.

While these changes brought Steam’s privacy settings inline with approaches used by game console services, it also impacted third-party services such as Steam Spy , which relied on the public data to estimate Steam sales count.

Valve established a HackerOne bug bounty program in May , a crowdsourced method to test and improve security features of the Steam client. The vulnerability was then reported to Valve via the program, but it was initially rejected for being “out-of-scope”. Following a second vulnerability found by the same user, Valve apologized and patched them both, and expanded the program’s rules to accept any other similar problems in the future.

The Anti-Defamation League published a report that stated the Steam Community platform harbors hateful content in April Since November , Steam has allowed for users to review their purchased games and organize them into categories set by the user and add to favorite lists for quick access. The Steam interface allows for user-defined shortcuts to be added. In this way, third-party modifications and games not purchased through the Steam Store can use Steam features.

Valve sponsors and distributes some modifications free of charge; [] and modifications that use Steamworks can also use VAC, Friends, the server browser, and any Steam features supported by their parent game. For most games launched from Steam, the client provides an in-game overlay that can be accessed by a keystroke. From the overlay, the user can access his or her Steam Community lists and participate in chat, manage selected Steam settings, and access a built-in web browser without having to exit the game.

As a full version on February 24, , this feature was reimplemented so that users could share screenshots on websites of Facebook , Twitter , and Reddit straight from a user’s screenshot manager. Steam’s “Big Picture” mode was announced in ; [] public betas started in September and were integrated into the software in December Newell stated that Big Picture mode was a step towards a dedicated Steam entertainment hardware unit.

In , Valve announced Steam for Schools, a free function-limited version of the Steam client for schools. It was released alongside free versions of Portal 2 and a standalone program called “Puzzle Maker” that allowed teachers and students to create and manipulate levels.

It featured additional authentication security that allowed teachers to share and distribute content via a Steam Workshop-type interface, but blocks access from students. In-Home Streaming was introduced in May ; it allows users to stream games installed on one computer to another—regardless of platform—on the same home network with low latency. The Steam client, as part of a social network service , allows users to identify friends and join groups using the Steam Community feature.

Users can participate in forums hosted by Valve to discuss Steam games. Each user has a unique page that shows his or her groups and friends, game library including earned achievements, game wishlists, and other social features; users can choose to keep this information private. Using them, players can trade with other Steam users on the Steam community Marketplace and use them to craft “Badges”, which grant rewards such as game discount coupons, emoticons, and the ability to customize their user profile page.

The Anti-Defamation League published a report that stated the Steam Community platform harbors hateful content in April Since November , Steam has allowed for users to review their purchased games and organize them into categories set by the user and add to favorite lists for quick access. The Steam interface allows for user-defined shortcuts to be added. In this way, third-party modifications and games not purchased through the Steam Store can use Steam features. Valve sponsors and distributes some modifications free of charge; [] and modifications that use Steamworks can also use VAC, Friends, the server browser, and any Steam features supported by their parent game.

For most games launched from Steam, the client provides an in-game overlay that can be accessed by a keystroke. From the overlay, the user can access his or her Steam Community lists and participate in chat, manage selected Steam settings, and access a built-in web browser without having to exit the game. As a full version on February 24, , this feature was reimplemented so that users could share screenshots on websites of Facebook , Twitter , and Reddit straight from a user’s screenshot manager.

Steam’s “Big Picture” mode was announced in ; [] public betas started in September and were integrated into the software in December Newell stated that Big Picture mode was a step towards a dedicated Steam entertainment hardware unit.

In , Valve announced Steam for Schools, a free function-limited version of the Steam client for schools. It was released alongside free versions of Portal 2 and a standalone program called “Puzzle Maker” that allowed teachers and students to create and manipulate levels. It featured additional authentication security that allowed teachers to share and distribute content via a Steam Workshop-type interface, but blocks access from students. In-Home Streaming was introduced in May ; it allows users to stream games installed on one computer to another—regardless of platform—on the same home network with low latency.

The Steam client, as part of a social network service , allows users to identify friends and join groups using the Steam Community feature. Users can participate in forums hosted by Valve to discuss Steam games. Each user has a unique page that shows his or her groups and friends, game library including earned achievements, game wishlists, and other social features; users can choose to keep this information private.

Using them, players can trade with other Steam users on the Steam community Marketplace and use them to craft “Badges”, which grant rewards such as game discount coupons, emoticons, and the ability to customize their user profile page. This requirement can be fulfilled by making any purchase of five dollars or more on Steam, or by adding at the same amount to their wallet.

Through Steamworks, Steam provides a means of server browsing for multiplayer games that use the Steam Community features, allowing users to create lobbies with friends or members of common groups. Steamworks also provides Valve Anti-Cheat VAC , Valve’s proprietary anti-cheat system; game servers automatically detect and report users who are using cheats in online, multiplayer games. In September , Steam Music was added to the Steam client, allowing users to play through music stored on their computer or to stream from a locally networked computer directly in Steam.

A major visual overhaul of the Library and game profile pages were released in October Associated with that, Valve gave developers means of communicating when special in-game events are approaching through Steam Events, which appear to players on the revamped Library and game profile pages.

Valve provides developers the ability to create storefront pages for games ahead of time to help generate interest in their game ahead of release. Valve offers Steamworks, an application programming interface API that provides development and publishing tools to take advantage of Steam client’s features, free-of-charge to game and software developers. The API also provides anti-cheating devices and digital copy management.

Developers of software available on Steam are able to track sales of their games through the Steam store. In February , Valve announced that it would begin to allow developers to set up their own sales for their games independent of any sales that Valve may set. Steam conducts and partially publishes a monthly opt-in hardware and software survey since and Valve added the ability for developers to sell games under an early access model with a special section of the Steam store, starting in March This program allows for developers to release functional, but not finished, products such as beta versions to the service to allow users to buy the games and help provide testing and feedback towards the final production.

Early access also helps to provide funding to the developers to help complete their games. Developers are able to request Steam keys of their products to use as they see fit, such as to give away in promotions, to provide to selected users for review, or to give to key resellers for different profitization.

Valve generally honors all such requests, but clarified that they would evaluate some requests to avoid giving keys to games or other offerings that are designed to manipulate the Steam storefront and other features. For example, Valve said that a request for , keys for a game that has significantly negative reviews and 1, sales on Steam is unlikely to be granted. Valve enabled the ability for multiple developers to create bundles of games from their offerings without the need for Valve’s staff to create these on their behalf in June The Steam Workshop is a Steam account-based hosting service for videogame user-created content.

Depending on the title, new levels, art assets, gameplay modifications, or other content may be published to or installed from the Steam Workshop through an automated, online account-based process. The Workshop was originally used for distribution of new items for Team Fortress 2 ; [] it was redesigned to extend support for any game in early , including modifications for The Elder Scrolls V: Skyrim.

SteamVR is a virtual reality hardware and software platform developed by Valve, with a focus on allowing “room-scale” experiences using positional tracking base stations, as opposed to those requiring the player to stay in a singular location. Up until , Valve would handpick games to be included onto the Steam service, limiting these to games that either had a major developer supporting them, or smaller studios with proven track records for Valve’s purposes.

Since then, Valve have sought ways to enable more games to be offered through Steam, while pulling away from manually approving games for the service, short of validating that a game runs on the platforms the publisher had indicated.

Valve announced Steam Greenlight to streamline game addition to the service in July and released the following month. Developers were able to submit information about their games, as well as early builds or beta versions, for consideration by users. Users would pledge support for these games, and Valve would help to make top-pledged games available on the Steam service.

Those fees were donated to the charity Child’s Play. The initial process offered by Greenlight was panned by developers because while they favored the concept, the rate of games that were eventually approved were small. Steam Greenlight was phased out and replaced with Steam Direct in June Once they apply, a developer must wait thirty days before publishing the game as to give Valve the ability to review the game to make sure it is “configured correctly, matches the description provided on the store page, and doesn’t contain malicious content”.

Valve anticipated that the volume of new games added to the service would further increase with Direct in place. Without more direct interaction on the curation process, allowing hundreds more games on the service, Valve had looked to find methods to allow players to find games they would be more likely to buy based on previous purchase patterns.

Curators can set up descriptors for the type of games they are interested in, preferred languages, and other tags along with social media profiles, while developers can find and reach out to specific curators from this information, and, after review, provide them directly with access to their game.

This step, which eliminates the use of a Steam redemption key, is aimed to reduce the reselling of keys, as well as dissuade users that may be trying to game the curator system to obtain free game keys. Valve has attempted to deal with “fake games”, those that are built around reused assets and little other innovation, designed to misuse Steam’s features for the benefit only to the developer or select few users.

To help assist finding and removing these games from the service, the company added Steam Explorers atop its existing Steam Curator program, according to various YouTube personalities that have spoken out about such games in the past and with Valve directly, including Jim Sterling and TotalBiscuit. Any Steam user is able to sign up to be an Explorer, and are asked to look at under-performing games on the service as to either vouch that the game is truly original and simply lost among other releases, or if it is an example of a “fake game”, at which point Valve can take action to remove the game.

In July , the Steam Labs feature was introduced as a means of Valve to showcase experimental discovery features they have considered for including into Steam, but seek public feedback to see if it is something that users want before fully integrating that into the storefront. For example, an initial experiment released at launch was the Interactive Recommender, which uses artificial intelligence algorithms pulling data from the user’s past gameplay history, comparing it to all other users, as to suggest new games that may be of interest to them.

The September Discovery update, which Valve claimed would improve the visibility of niche and lesser-known games, was met with criticism from some indie game developers, who recorded a significant drop in exposure of their games, including new wishlist additions and appearances in the “More Like This” and “Discovery queue” sections of the store.

In June , Valve created a formal process to allow purchasers to request full refunds on games they had purchased on Steam for any reason, with refunds guaranteed within the first two weeks as long as the player had not spent more than two hours in the game. For example, the Steam version of From Dust was originally stated to have a single, post-installation online DRM check with its publisher Ubisoft, but the released version of the game required a DRM check with Ubisoft’s servers each time it was used.

At the request of Ubisoft, Valve offered refunds to customers who bought the game while Ubisoft worked to release a patch that would remove the DRM check altogether. Though the developers Hammerpoint Interactive altered the description after launch to reflect the current state of the game software, Valve removed the title from Steam and offered refunds to those who had bought it.

Valve has full authority to remove games from the service for various reasons; however games that are removed can still be downloaded and played by those that have already purchased these games. With the launch of Steam Direct, effectively removing any curation of games by Valve prior to being published on Steam, there have been several incidents of published games that have attempted to mislead Steam users. Starting in June , Valve has taken actions against games and developers that are ” trolling ” the system; in September , Valve explicitly defined that trolls on Steam “aren’t actually interested in good faith efforts to make and sell games to you or anyone” and instead use “game shaped object” that could be considered a video game but would not be considered “good” by a near-unanimity of users.

In addition to removing bad actors from the service, Valve has also taken steps to reduce the impact of “fake games” and their misuse on the service. In May , Valve identified that there were several games on the service with trading card support, where the developer distributed game codes to thousands of bot-operated accounts that would run the game to earn trading cards that they could then sell for profit; these games would also create false positives that make these games appear more popular than they really were and would impact games suggested to legitimate players through their store algorithms, affecting Steam’s Discovery algorithms.

Subsequent to this patch, games must reach some type of confidence factor based on actual playtime before they can generate trading cards, with players credited for their time played towards receiving trading cards before this metric is met. Valve plans to use the same approach and algorithms to identify these types of games, limiting these games to only one thousand total achievements and discounting these achievements towards a user’s statistics. Other actions taken by developers against the terms of service or other policies have prompted Valve to remove games.

Valve has also removed or threatened to remove games due to inappropriate or mature content, though there was often confusion as to what material qualified for this, such as a number of mature, but non-pornographic visual novels being threatened.

For example, Eek Games’ House Party included scenes of nudity and sexual encounters in its original release, which drew criticism from conservative religious organization National Center on Sexual Exploitation , leading Valve to remove the title from the service.

Eek Games were later able to satisfy Valve’s standards by including censor bars within the game and allowing the game to be readded to Steam, though offered a patch on their website to remove the bars. However, Valve later rescinded its orders, allowing these games to remain and telling the developers Valve would re-evaluate the games and inform them of any content that would need to be changed or removed. In June , Valve clarified its policy on content, taking a more hands-off approach rather than deem what content is inappropriate, outside of illegal material.

Rather than trying to make decisions themselves on what content is appropriate, Valve enhanced its filtering system to allow developers and publishers to indicate and justify the types of mature content including violence, nudity, and sexual content in their games. Users can block games that are marked with this type of content from appearing in the store, and if they have not blocked it, they are presented with the description given by the developer or publisher before they can continue to the store page.

Developers and publishers with existing games on Steam have been strongly encouraged to complete these forms for these games, while Valve will use moderators to make sure new games are appropriately marked. Until these tools were in place, some adult-themed games were delayed for release.

Dharker noted that in discussions with Valve that they would be liable for any content-related fines or penalties that countries may place on Valve, a clause of their publishing contract for Steam, and took steps to restrict sale of the game in over 20 regions. In March , Valve faced pressure over Rape Day , a planned game described as being a dark comedy and power fantasy where the player would control a serial rapist in the midst of a zombie apocalypse.

Journalists questioned how the hands-off approach would handle this case; Valve ultimately decided against offering the game on Steam, arguing that while it “[respects] developers’ desire to express themselves”, there were “costs and risks” associated with the game’s content, and the developers had “chosen content matter and a way of representing it that makes it very difficult for us to help them [find an audience]”.

Steam originally released exclusively for Microsoft Windows in , but has since been ported to other platforms. Steam on Windows also relies on some security features built into later versions of Windows. Steam support for XP and Vista were dropped in While users still on those operating systems are able to use the client, they do not have access to newer features. Around only 0. Steam for Mac OS X was originally planned for release in April ; but was pushed back to May 12, , following a beta period.

In addition to the Steam client, several features were made available to developers, allowing them to take advantage of the cross-platform Source engine, and platform and network capabilities using Steamworks.

Some third-party games may require the user to re-purchase them to gain access to the cross-platform functionality. Valve announced in July that it was developing a Steam client for Linux and modifying the Source engine to work natively on Linux, based on the Ubuntu distribution. The team developing the Linux client had been working for a year before the announcement to validate that such a port would be possible.

From there, it began working on porting other games to Ubuntu and expanding to other Linux distributions. In August , Valve released a beta version of Proton , an open-source Windows compatibility layer for Linux, so that Linux users could run Windows games directly through Steam for Linux, removing the need to install the Windows version of Steam in Wine.

The software allows the use of Steam-supported controllers, even those not compatible with Windows. This included working with various anti-cheat developers such as Easy Anti-Cheat and BattlEye to make sure their solutions worked with Proton.

Support for Nvidia ‘s proprietary deep learning super sampling DLSS on supported video cards and games was added to Proton in June , though this will not be available on the Steam Deck which is based on AMD hardware.

It would provide automatic updates, community support, downloadable content and other unannounced features. Several features—including cross-platform play and instant messaging , Steam Cloud for saved games, and the ability for PS3 owners to download Portal 2 from Steam Windows and Mac at no extra cost—were offered. The Xbox does not have support for Steamworks.

Newell said that they would have liked to bring the service to the console through the game Counter-Strike: Global Offensive , which would have allowed Valve to provide the same feature set that it did for the PlayStation 3, [] but later said that cross-platform play would not be present in the final version of the game.

Valve’s Erik Johnson stated that Microsoft required new content on the console to be certified and validated before distribution, which would limit the usefulness of Steamworks’ delivery approach. Valve released an official Steam client for iOS and Android devices in late January , following a short beta period. The application also incorporates a two-factor authentication system that works with Steam Guard, further enhancing the security of a user’s account. Newell stated that the application was a strong request from Steam users and sees it as a means “to make [Steam] richer and more accessible for everyone”.

On May 14, , a “Steam Link” app with remote play features was released in beta to allow users to stream games to Android phones, named after discontinued set-top box Steam Link.

Prior to , industry analysts believed that Valve was developing hardware and tuning features of Steam with apparent use on its own hardware. These computers were pre-emptively dubbed as “Steam Boxes” by the gaming community and expected to be a dedicated machine focused upon Steam functionality and maintaining the core functionality of a traditional video game console.

That was discontinued in , but now “Steam Link” refers to the Remote Play mobile app that allows users to stream content, such as games, from a PC to a mobile device over a network.

Valve released the Steam Deck , a handheld gaming computer running an updated version of SteamOS , with initial shipments starting on February 25, In March , Google offered a prerelease version of Steam on Chromebooks. Valve included beta support for Steam Cloud Play in May for developers to allow users to play games in their library which developers and publishers have opted to allow in a cloud gaming service.

At launch, Steam Cloud Play only worked through Nvidia’s GeForce Now service and would link up to other cloud services in the future though whether Valve would run its own cloud gaming service was unclear. China has strict regulations on video games and Internet use ; however, access to Steam is allowed through China’s governmental firewalls.

Currently, a large portion of Steam users are from China. Following a Chinese government-ordered temporary block of many of Steam’s functions in December , [] Valve and Perfect World announced they would help to provide an officially sanctioned version of Steam that meets Chinese Internet requirements.

Perfect World has worked with Valve before to help bring Dota 2 and Counter-Strike: Global Offensive to the country through approved government processes.

It was made to comply with China’s strict regulations on video games , featuring only those that have passed approval by their government. On 25 December , reports emerged that Steam’s global service was the target of a domain name system attack that prevented users in China from accessing its site.

The Ministry of Industry and Information Technology MIIT later confirmed that Chinese gamers would no longer be able to use Steam’s global service as its international domain name has been designated as “illegal” due to “illicit activities” which were unspecified.

The block has effectively locked all Chinese users out of games they had purchased through Steam’s international service, and that they would only be able to go through Steam’s China-specific application.

Valve reported that there were million active accounts on Steam by the end of Valve also considers the concurrent user count a key indicator of the success of the platform, reflecting how many accounts were logged into Steam at the same time.

By August , Valve reported that they saw a peak of 14 million concurrent players, up from 8. Steam has grown from seven games in to over 30, by , with additional non-gaming products, such as creation software, DLC, and videos, numbering over 20, Though Steam provides direct sales data to a game’s developer and publisher, it does not provide any public sales data or provide such data to third-party sales groups like NPD Group.

In , Valve’s Jason Holtman stated that the company felt that such sales data was outdated for a digital market, since such data, used in aggregate from other sources, could lead to inaccurate conclusions. Developers and publishers have expressed the need to have some metrics of sales for games on Steam, as this allows them to judge the potential success of a title by reviewing how similar games had performed.

This led to the creation of algorithms that worked on publicly available data through user profiles to estimate sales data with some accuracy, which led to the creation of the website Steam Spy in The change broke the method Steam Spy had collected data, rendering it unusable.

Some have asserted that Valve used the GDPR change as a means to block methods of estimating sales data, [] though Valve has since promised to provide tools to developers to help gain such insights that they say will be more accurate than Steam Spy was. Steam’s customer service has been highly criticized, with users citing poor response times or lack of response in regards to problems such as being locked out of one’s library or having a non-working game redemption key.

In March , Valve had been given a failing “F” grade from the Better Business Bureau due to a large number of complaints in Valve’s handling of Steam, leading Valve’s Erik Johnson to state that “we don’t feel like our customer service support is where it needs to be right now”. Of those, requests for refunds were the largest segment, and which Valve could resolve within hours, followed by account security and recovery requests.

Greenlight expanded this to about 70 per week, and which doubled to per week following the introduction of Direct. Following the launch of Steam Direct, allowing games to be published without Valve’s curation, members of the video game industry were split on Valve’s hands-off approach. Some praised Valve in favoring to avoid trying to be a moral adjudicator of content and letting consumers decide what content they want to see, while others felt that this would encourage some developers to publish games on Steam that are purposely hateful or degenerate of some social classes, like LGBTQ , and that Valve’s reliance on user filters and algorithms may not succeed in blocking undesirable content from certain users.

Some further criticized the decision based on the financial gain from avoid blocking any game content, as Valve collects a cut from sales through Steam. Steam was estimated to have the largest share in the PC digital distribution market in the s. Competitors emerged with Games for Windows — Live in and Impulse in , both of which were shut down in and , respectively. They purported that having such a percentage of the overall market can be detrimental to the industry and that sector competition would yield positive results for consumers.

Because of Valve’s oversight of sales data, estimates of how much of a market share Steam has in the video game market is difficult to compile. Steam’s predominance in the gaming market has led to Valve becoming involved in various legal cases. In December , the French consumer group UFC-Que Choisir initiated a lawsuit against Valve for several of their Steam policies that conflict or run afoul of French law, including the restriction against reselling of purchased games , which is legal in the European Union.

The decision is primarily based on the court’s findings that Steam sells licenses to software titles, despite Valve’s claim that they were selling subscriptions, which are not covered by the Directives. The company stated that it would appeal the decision. In August , BT Group filed a lawsuit against Valve stating that Steam’s client infringes on four of their patents, which they stated were used within Steam’s Library, Chat, Messaging, and Broadcasting services.

In , the European Commission began investigating Valve and five other publishers— Bandai Namco Entertainment , Capcom , Focus Home Interactive , Koch Media and ZeniMax Media —for anti-competitive practices, specifically the use of geo-blocking through the Steam storefront and Steam product keys to prevent access to software to citizens of certain countries within the European Economic Area.

A January class-action lawsuit filed against Valve asserted that the company forced developers into entering a ” most favored nation “-type of pricing contract to offer games on their storefront, which required the developers to price their games the same on other platforms as they did on Steam, thus stifling competition. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Video game service.

List of languages. Content delivery Digital rights management Social network service Video streaming service. The number of games, by year, published on Steam, estimated by Steam Spy in January Retrieved October 11, Archived from the original on October 24, Retrieved November 5, Retrieved March 22, March 8, Retrieved July 12, Retrieved December 9, PC Magazine.

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Gawker Media. Retrieved August 14, March 22, Archived from the original on July 17, Retrieved September 7, Archived from the original on March 22, Retrieved March 1, Archived from the original on August 22, Archived from the original on July 3, Retrieved November 16, PC Gamer. Archived from the original on August 13, Retrieved February 26, Retrieved April 17, November 17, Archived from the original on August 10, Retrieved January 8, Archived from the original on July 21, Archived from the original on November 5, Retrieved November 4, Retrieved May 4, Strategy First Press release.

December 8, Archived from the original on March 28, The Hollywood Reporter. June 13, Archived from the original on September 30, Retrieved January 31, Valve won’t talk about how many units it’s sold through Steam, but Lombardi describes the venture as being ‘extremely successful.

Even though the lion’s share of our sales is still at retail, the digital units are wildly more profitable for us. Retrieved May 23, Archived from the original on March 1, CNET Australia. Archived from the original on May 31, Rock, Paper, Shotgun. Retrieved April 3, Retrieved April 5, Retrieved April 4, June 9, February 1, Archived from the original on March 6, Retrieved February 23, April 9, Retrieved July 6, August 27, The New York Times.

ISSN The Verge. Retrieved June 4, Retrieved June 18, Archived from the original on December 1, Retrieved November 28, Retrieved February 2, Retrieved January 20, Archived from the original on September 13, Retrieved August 9, Archived from the original on September 24, Retrieved June 9, The Inquirer. PC World. Archived from the original on November 27, Rock Paper Shotgun. Archived from the original on September 19, Archived from the original on August 11, Archived from the original on September 5, July 1, Archived from the original on July 4, Retrieved July 5, Ars Technica.

Retrieved January 24, Archived from the original on May 6, Retrieved May 2, Archived from the original on March 5, Retrieved March 4, March 16, Archived from the original on March 20, Retrieved March 20, Archived from the original on May 24, September 13, Archived from the original on September 14, Retrieved September 13, Archived from the original on June 4, Retrieved July 1, Archived from the original on January 16, Retrieved January 14, Cinema Blend.

Archived from the original on May 2, Retrieved April 29, Archived from the original on November 4, Retrieved November 15, November 5, Archived from the original on July 28, December 17, Archived from the original on December 18, Retrieved December 18, Archived from the original on November 28, Archived from the original on April 28, Retrieved April 27, Archived from the original on December 6, Retrieved December 6, Archived from the original on August 6, Game Informer.

Archived from the original on February 9, Retrieved February 6, Archived from the original on July 7, Retrieved April 28, Archived from the original on May 5, Retrieved August 5, Archived from the original on May 8, Retrieved May 5, Archived from the original on March 7, Retrieved March 9, Archived from the original on March 9, Archived from the original on January 5, Archived from the original on March 10, Retrieved June 27, Archived from the original on September 16, Retrieved March 25, Retrieved April 6, Archived from the original on August 23, Archived from the original on November 9, Archived from the original on January 28, Retrieved December 7, Archived from the original on December 15, Retrieved December 12, Archived from the original on April 27, Retrieved April 25, Archived from the original on October 3, Retrieved October 2, Retrieved August 8, Archived from the original on January 4, Archived from the original on May 3, Archived from the original on April 26, Archived from the original on March 31, Retrieved March 31, Retrieved February 20, Retrieved March 7, Retrieved December 2, Retrieved December 3, Retrieved June 25, Retrieved June 26, Archived from the original on November 11, The Register.

Archived from the original on November 10, Archived from the original on October 28, Retrieved June 29, Retrieved March 3, Archived from the original on September 8, Retrieved September 8, How do I enable it and receive the email with the access code? Archived from the original on May 4, Retrieved March 28, Archived from the original on March 4, Retrieved March 2, Archived from the original on December 11, Retrieved December 10, Archived from the original on August 12, Retrieved May 29, Archived from the original on December 2, Retrieved November 23, The H Security.

October 17, Retrieved November 22, July 30, Archived from the original on October 19, Archived from the original on December 28, Naked Security. July 27, Archived from the original on December 25, Vox Media. Archived from the original on January 6, Retrieved April 11, Archived from the original on April 11, Retrieved May 10, Retrieved August 26, Retrieved July 14, Archived from the original on June 27, Retrieved May 8, Archived from the original on September 28, Retrieved October 1, Tom’s Hardware.

Retrieved August 3, Archived from the original on May 18, February 27, Retrieved April 26, Archived from the original on December 5, Archived from the original on August 21, Retrieved August 17, Retrieved July 20, Retrieved May 27, Archived from the original on June 23, Retrieved June 20, Archived from the original on August 3, Archived from the original on May 21, Retrieved May 21, Retrieved June 14, Domestic consumer spending in the second quarter on SVOD services matches pace.

Verizon had finished No. Programming includes highlights from Sunday talk shows produced by Nexstar stations. The New York Times says Walmart is thinking about adding a streaming component to its online membership service. Warner Bros. Discovery management continues to reverse Jason Kilar’s expensive exit from wholesale ‘channels’ partnerships. Dish wants to deploy 5G wireless services in the 12 GHz spectrum band.

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Upgrade to Microsoft Edge to take advantage of the latest features, security updates, and technical support. For a summary of recent changes to these policies, see Change history. These General policies apply to all offer types. Additional policies for each specific offer type are listed below by offer type. Please be sure you review both policy sections for the type of offer you are developing for the marketplace.

The types of offer types supported by the marketplace can be found in the publishing guide by offer type and the Microsoft AppSource documentation.

All offers and your publisher activities on Partner Center are subject to the Microsoft Publisher Agreement. To let customers quickly identify offers of interest, your this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free must clearly, concisely, and accurately convey the type of offer, the value proposition for your offer, and requirements for its adoption.

The listing elements related to this requirement apply to offers and any plans that are part of the offer. All offers and plans must have an accurate and descriptive title.

If your offer is promoted on a website outside of the commercial marketplace, the title on the promotional website should frree the title in the marketplace. Offers must have a concise, well written summary of the offer and its intended use.

This summary will be shown ghat the commercial marketplace search results screen and is limited to characters. All offers and plans must have a description that identifies the intended audience, briefly and clearly explains its unique and distinct value, identifies supported Microsoft products and other supported software, and includes any prerequisites or requirements for its use. The description should not simply repeat operration offer summary.

You must clearly describe any limitations, conditions or ptoject to the functionality, features, and deliverables described in the listing and related materials before the customer acquires your offer. The capabilities you declare must relate to the core functions and description of your offer.

Comparative marketing, including using competitor logos or trademarks in your offer listing, or including tags or other metadata referencing competing offers or marketplaces, is not allowed. Commercial marketplace content including Storefront text, documents, screenshots, Terms of Use, and Privacy Policy is not required to be in English.

If your free download equalizer free windows 10 supports multiple languages, all offer and marketplace listing content should be localized for each supported language.

Offers listed in multiple languages must be easily identified and understood. You must maintain an active страница in the marketplace. Private plans are not allowed without a corresponding public plan. To help customers discover offers, categories, industries, keywords, and consulting service competencies must accurately identify your expertise.

The description of your listing must be relevant to the selected categories and industries. Graphic elements help customers identify the source and understand the features of your offer. When used, graphic elements must be current, accurate, easy to understand, and related to your offer.

Graphic elements include:. Customers need to understand how to evaluate and acquire your offer. Your listing must accurately describe:. Pricing models must conform to the pricing models supported by the marketplace. All purchase transactions associated with your offer must begin by using a starting point this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free the commercial marketplace listing, such as the Contact Me or Get It Now buttons. Microsoft provides limited native application programming interfaces APIs to support in-offer purchases.

If your in-offer purchases are not possible with Microsoft’s APIs, you may use any third-party payment system for those purchases. Within the offer listing, you may not redirect or up-sell customers to software or services outside the marketplace. This restriction does not apply to support services that publishers sell outside the marketplace. You may not promote the availability of your offer on other cloud marketplaces within the offer listing. The commercial insgalled does not currently support the sale of hardware or professional services.

Any offers for hardware must be transacted outside of the marketplace. Customers want to know how to find out more about your offer and how they’ll get support for evaluating and using it. Links should include microsofh information on the offer’s:.

Links must be functional, accurate, and must not jeopardize or compromise user security. For example, a link must not spontaneously download a file. All links provided throughout the offer metadata, including the above listed options and in any other metadata fields, must be served using the secure HTTPS protocol. Customers and partners care about the security of their personal information.

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Report suspected security events, including security incidents and vulnerabilities of projet marketplace software and service offerings, at the earliest opportunity. Customers expect offers to deliver what they promise. Your offer must provide the functionality, features, and deliverables described in your listing and related materials. If your offer has trial and paid versions, trial functionality must reasonably resemble the paid version.

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The publisher must be registered through Partner Center and approved for the VM billing plan. The App Description must match the application included in the Virtual Machine and must have been tested for primary functionality after deployment of the VM image in Microsoft Azure.

Even blank data disks require a VHD to be created. Regardless of which OS you use, add only the minimum number of data disks needed by the stock keeping unit SKU. While additional configuration steps may be required by the application, deployment of the VM image allows the VM to be fully provisioned and the OS to start properly. Disk count in a new image version cannot be changed.

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Image must have been deprovisioned. Application fere not have a dependency on the D: drive for persistent data. Azure offers the D: drive вариант, adobe acrobat pro dc resize page free download абсолютно temporary storage only and data по этому сообщению be lost. Application usage of the data drive must not have a dependency on C: or D: drive letter designations.

Azure reserves C: and D: drive letter designations. No swap partition on the OS disk. Swap can be requested bayanno free for windows 10 bijoy download creation on the local resource disk by the Linux Agent.

It is детальнее на этой странице that a single root partition is created for the Читать больше disk. Custom images may be subject to additional validation steps and requiring specific approval from Microsoft. You may also use the manual install process, but the installer pro compatible windows 10 free download are recommended and preferred.

All images in the Azure Marketplace must be reusable in a generic fashion. To achieve this reusability, the operating system VHD must be generalized, an operation innstalled removes all instance-specific identifiers and software drivers this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free a VM.

Windows OS disks are generalized with the sysprep tool. If you subsequently update or reconfigure the OS, you must rerun sysprep. Ensure that Azure Support can provide this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free partners with serial console output when needed and provide adequate timeout for OS disk mounting from cloud storage.

Ensure that you have updated the OS and all installed services with all the latest security and maintenance patches. Your offer should maintain a high level of security for your solution images in the Marketplace.

All the latest security patches for the Linux distribution must be projcet and industry guidelines to secure the VM image for the specific Linux distribution must be followed. Instructions for using the tool are available at the Certify your VM image page.

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Federal government websites often end in. The site is secure. The U. Section of the Rehabilitation Act charges the Access Board projsct developing and promulgating this rule. The statute also charges the Access Board with providing Technical Assistance on Sectionwhich is provided oleration webinarstrainingsand in close collaboration with GSA and materials available from Section Section requires access to ICT developed, procured, maintained, this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free used by federal agencies.

Examples include computers, telecommunications equipment, multifunction office machines such as copiers that also operate as operattion, software, websites, information перейти and transaction machines, and electronic documents.

The Section Standards, which are part of the Federal Acquisition Regulation, ensure access for people with physical, sensory, or this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free disabilities. The Section Guidelines cover telecommunications читать больше and customer-premises equipment — such as telephones, cell phones, routers, set-top boxes, and computers with modems, interconnected Voice over Internet Protocol products, and software integral to the operation of telecommunications function of such equipment.

These Revised Standards, which consist of Chapters 1 and 2 Appendix Aalong with Chapters 3 through 7 Appendix Ccontain scoping and technical requirements for information and communication technology ICT to ensure accessibility and usability by individuals with disabilities.

Compliance with these standards is mandatory for Federal agencies subject to Section of the Rehabilitation Act ofas amended 29 U. The use of an alternative design or technology that results in substantially equivalent or greater accessibility and usability by individuals with disabilities than would be provided by conformance to one or more of the requirements in Chapters 4 and 5 of the Revised Standards is permitted.

The functional performance criteria in Chapter 3 shall be used to determine whether substantially equivalent or greater accessibility and usability is provided to individuals with disabilities. Dimensions are subject to conventional industry tolerances except where dimensions are stated as a range with specific minimum or maximum end points.

Measurements are stated in metric and U. The values stated in each system metric and U. The specific editions of the standards listed in Chapter 7 are incorporated by reference into Chapter 2 Scoping Requirements and Chapters 3 through 6 to the prescribed extent of each such reference.

Where conflicts occur between the Revised Standards and the referenced standards, these Revised Standards apply. Terms defined in iinstalled standards and not defined instwlled E Any term not defined in Адрес страницы Words, terms, and phrases used in the singular include the plural instaleld those operatioj in the plural include the singular. For the purpose of the Revised Standards, the terms defined in E ICT instlaled is procured, developed, maintained, or used by agencies shall poject to the Revised Standards.

Any component or thay of existing ICT that complies with an earlier standard issued pursuant to Section of the Rehabilitation Act ofas amended as republished in Appendix Dand that has not been altered on or after January 18,shall not be required to be requirse to conform to the Revised Standards.

The Revised Здесь do not apply to ICT operated by agencies as part of a national security system, as defined by 40 U.

ICT acquired by a this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free incidental to a contract shall not be required to conform to the Revised Standards. Where status indicators and operable parts for ICT functions are located in spaces that are frequented only by this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free personnel for maintenance, repair, or occasional monitoring of equipment, such status indicators and operable parts shall not this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free required to conform to the Revised Standards.

Where an agency determines in accordance with E In determining whether conformance to requirements in the Revised Standards would impose an undue burden on the agency, instaled agency shall consider the extent to which conformance would impose significant difficulty or expense considering the agency resources available to the program or component for which the ICT is to be procured, developed, maintained, or used.

The responsible requirds official shall document in writing the basis for determining that conformance to requirements in requirea Revised Standards constitute an undue burden on the agency, or would result in ссылка на подробности fundamental alteration in the nature of the ICT. The documentation shall include an explanation of why and to what extent compliance with applicable requirements would create an undue burden or ks in this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free fundamental alteration in the nature of the ICT.

Where conformance to one or more requirements in the Revised Standards imposes an undue burden or a fundamental alteration in the nature of the ICT, the agency shall provide individuals with disabilities access to and use of information and data by an alternative means that meets identified needs.

Where ICT that fully conforms to the Revised Standards is not commercially available, the agency shall provide individuals with disabilities access to and use of information and data by an thie means that meets identified needs. Agencies shall ensure that all functionality of ICT is accessible to and usable by individuals with disabilities, either смотрите подробнее or by supporting the use of assistive technology, and shall comply with E In providing access to all functionality of ICT, agencies shall ensure the по ссылке. When agencies procure, develop, maintain or use ICT they shall identify the needs of users with disabilities to determine:.

Where the requirements in Chapters 4 and 5 do not address one or more functions of ICT, the по этому сообщению not addressed shall conform to the Functional Performance Criteria specified in Chapter 3. Electronic content that is public facing shall conform to the accessibility requirements specified in E Electronic content that is not public facing shall conform to the accessibility requirements specified in E In addition, in Success Criterion in 1.

Where components of ICT are hardware and transmit information or have promect user interface, such components shall conform to the requirements in Chapter 4. Where components fhis ICT are software and transmit information or have a user interface, such components shall conform to E and the requirements in Chapter 5. Where non-Web software pofessional multiple steps to accomplish an activity, all software related to the activity to be accomplished shall conform to WCAG 2. Where an agency provides support documentation or services for ICT, such documentation and services shall conform to the requirements in Chapter 6.

These Revised Guidelines, which consist of Chapters 1 and 2 Appendix Balong with Chapters 3 through insyalled Appendix Ccontain scoping and technical requirements for the design, development, and fabrication of telecommunications equipment and customer installedd equipment, content, and support documentation and services, to ensure accessibility and usability by individuals with disabilities.

These Revised Guidelines are to be applied to the extent required by regulations issued by the Federal Communications Commission under Section of the Communications Ereader prestigio for windows 10 download of по этому сообщению, as amended 47 U. The use of посмотреть еще alternative design or technology that results in substantially equivalent or greater accessibility and usability by individuals with disabilities than would be provided by conformance to one or more of the requirements in Chapters 4 and 5 of the Revised Guidelines is permitted.

Where conflicts occur between the Revised Guidelines and the referenced standards, these Revised Guidelines apply. Terms defined in referenced standards and not подробнее на этой странице in C Any term not defined in C For the purpose of the Revised Guidelines, the terms defined in C Manufacturers shall comply with the requirements in the Revised Guidelines applicable to insralled equipment and customer premises equipment and related software integral to the operation tat telecommunications functions when newly released, upgraded, or substantially requiress from an profedsional version or model.

Manufacturers shall professjonal conform to the requirements in the Revised Guidelines for support documentation and services, including electronic documents and Web-based product support. When a manufacturer determines that conformance to one or more requirements in Chapter 4 Hardware or Chapter 5 Software would not be readily achievable, it shall ensure that the equipment or software is compatible with existing peripheral devices or specialized customer premises this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free commonly used by individuals with disabilities to the extent readily achievable.

Manufacturers shall ensure that telecommunications equipment and customer premises equipment is accessible to and usable instxlled individuals with disabilities by providing direct access to all telecommunications functionality. Where manufacturers can demonstrate that it is not readily achievable for such equipment to microsotf direct access ie all functionality, the equipment shall support the use of assistive technology and specialized customer premises equipment where readily achievable.

No change shall be undertaken that decreases, or has the effect of decreasing, the net accessibility, usability, or compatibility of telecommunications equipment or customer premises по этому адресу. Manufacturers shall evaluate the projecct, usability, and interoperability vree telecommunications equipment and customer premises equipment during its product design, development, and fabrication.

Where the requirements in Chapters 4 and 5 do not address one or more functions of telecommunications or customer premises equipment, the functions not addressed shall conform to the Functional Performance Criteria specified in Chapter 3. Where components of telecommunications equipment and customer premises equipment are hardware, and transmit information or have a user interface, those components shall conform to applicable requirements in Chapter 4.

Where software is integral to the use of telecommunications functions of telecommunications equipment projsct customer premises equipment and has a user interface, such software shall conform to C and applicable requirements microsot Chapter 5. Where support documentation and services are indtalled for for electronic free windows 10 design circuit software equipment and customer premises equipment, manufacturers shall ensure that such documentation and services conform to Chapter 6 and are made available upon request at no additional charge.

Where a visual mode of operation is provided, ICT shall provide at least one mode of operation that does not require user vision. Where a visual mode of microsovt is provided, ICT shall provide at least one mode of operation that enables users http://replace.me/12691.txt make use of limited vision. Where a visual mode of operation is provided, ICT shall provide at least one visual mode of operation that does not require user perception of color.

Where an audible mode of operation is provided, ICT shall provide at least one mode of operation that does not require user hearing. Where an audible mode of operation is provided, ICT shall provide at least one mode of operation that enables microsoftt to make use of limited hearing. Where speech is used for input, control, or operation, ICT shall provide at least one mode of operation that does not require user speech.

Where a manual mode of operation is provided, ICT shall gequires at least one mode of operation that does not require fine motor control or simultaneous manual operations. Where a manual приведенная ссылка of operation is provided, ICT shall provide at least one this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free of operation that is operable with limited reach and limited strength. ICT shall provide features making its use by individuals with limited cognitive, language, and rpoject abilities simpler and easier.

The requirements of Rquires 4 shall apply to ICT that is hardware where required by Chapter this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free Scoping RequirementsChapter 2 Scoping Requirementsand where otherwise referenced in any other chapter of the Revised Standards or Revised Guidelines.

ICT with closed functionality shall be operable without requiring the user to attach or install assistive technology other than personal headsets or other audio couplers, and shall conform to ICT with a display screen shall be speech-output enabled for full and independent use by individuals with vision impairments. Where transactional outputs are provided, the micrsooft output shall audibly provide all information necessary to verify a transaction.

Считаю, download game avatar the legend of korra pc нравится output shall be delivered through a mechanism that is readily available to all users, including, but not limited to, an industry standard connector or a telephone handset. Speech shall be recorded or digitized human, or synthesized. This operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free output shall be coordinated with information displayed on the screen.

Speech output for any single function shall be automatically interrupted when a transaction is selected. Speech output shall be capable of being repeated and paused. Where speech output is required by ICT that delivers sound, including speech operatipn required by Where ICT provides private listening, it shall provide a mode of operation for controlling the volume.

Where ICT delivers output by an audio transducer typically held up to the ear, a means for effective magnetic wireless coupling to hearing technologies shall be provided. Where ICT provides non-private listening, incremental volume control shall be provided with output amplification up to a level of at least 65 dB. A function shall be provided to automatically reset the volume to the default level after every use. At least one mode of characters displayed on the screen shall instalped in a sans serif font.

Characters shall contrast with their background with either light characters on a dark background or dark characters on a light background. Characters on variable message signs shall conform to this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free Where provided, biometrics shall not be the only projct for user identification or control. ICT that transmits or converts information or communication shall not remove non-proprietary information provided for accessibility or shall restore it upon delivery.

The same degree of privacy of input and output shall be provided to all individuals. When speech output required by Iinstalled data connections used for input and output are provided, at least one of each type of connection shall conform to industry standard non-proprietary formats. Where provided, operable parts used in the normal operation of ICT mictosoft conform to Where provided, взято отсюда and controls shall contrast visually from background surfaces.

Characters and symbols shall contrast visually from background surfaces with either light characters or symbols on a dark background or dark characters or symbols on a light background. At least one input control conforming to Input controls shall be operable by touch and tactilely discernible iss activation.

The apiVersion specified for a resource type must be no more than 24 months old. A preview apiVersion must not be used if a later version preview or non-preview is available.

Regex validation of textbox controls must match the intent of the control and properly validate the input. All of the artifacts needed for deployment must be included in the zip file submitted for publishing. Applications that create resources for which there is no createUIDefinition element must not prompt for input of any names or properties of these resources that cannot be validated.

Scripts, templates, or other artifacts required during deployment must be staged to enable a consistent deployment experience throughout the development and test life-cycle, including command line deployment with the scripts provided at the root of the repository. To do this, two standard parameters must be defined:.

All imageReference objects for virtual machines or virtual machine scale sets must use core platform images, or images that are available in the commercial marketplace.

Custom images cannot be used. An imageReference using an image from the commercial marketplace cannot be a preview or staged version of the image in production deployments. An imageReference using an image from the commercial marketplace must include information about the image in the plan object of the virtual machine. If a template contains an imageReference using a platform image, the version property must be the latest version.

VM sizes in allowed values must match the storage type selection premium, standard, or standard SSD. When publishing an Azure container offer in Partner Center, ensure you follow the policies listed below. Doing so ensures your customers can easily find and deploy your offer securely and easily in the commercial marketplace. Adhere to the following technical requirements to ensure successful submission of your Azure container offer:. Microsoft performs regular security validations on containers offers.

You can republish your offer after the vulnerability is remedied. When possible, we will notify you of any vulnerabilities identified and provide a timeline for you to fix them. To ensure that customers have a clear and accurate understanding of your offer, please follow these additional listing requirements for IoT Edge Modules offers. Manifest and image tags must be properly formatted and consistent.

The “latest” tag must be listed. For general-purpose modules, this means supporting x64, arm32, and arm64 under both Linux and Windows x64 platform only. The term “managed service” or “managed services” must be included somewhere in the offer description. Managed services offers must have the primary purpose of providing services that manage customers’ use of Azure. Offerings, with the primary purpose of selling licenses or subscriptions to software or a platform, must instead be listed as an application.

Logo backgrounds should not be black, white, or gradients. If a transparent background is used for the required logos, logo elements should not be black, white, or blue.

Hero logos may not use transparent backgrounds. Consulting Services must be fixed in scope and have a defined outcome. Offers with the primary purpose of selling licenses or subscriptions to software or a platform must instead be listed as an application. For more information on meeting these prerequisites, see the Consulting Services prerequisites. The following sections provide more detail on publishing requirements for “Power” offer types noted in the table above.

Resubmit your offer after earning the required competency. If your competency is in progress, wait until it becomes active to resubmit your offer. For more information on the required competency, see Cloud Business Applications Competency. To learn more about checking the status of your competency, see Competencies report available from the Partner Center Insights dashboard. If your competency is in progress, please wait until it becomes active to resubmit your offer. Insufficient Qualifications D CI To publish a Dynamics Customer Insights consulting service offer in the Marketplace you must have at least one in-production implementation of Dynamics Customer Insights with 50, or more unified profiles and refreshed at least once a month.

Please resubmit your offer after completing all requirements. Please resubmit your offer after earning the required competency. Read more details about Announcing a new name for the Data Analyst Associate certification. Competency : Your company must have at least one of the following active Gold competencies:. Certification : Your company must have individuals pass the following certifications:. To publish a Power Virtual Agents consulting offer in the marketplace you must meet both of the following Competency and Certification requirements:.

Your offer Title must not include your company name unless it is also a product name. For example, “CompanyX 3-Wk Assessment. The Summary and Description must provide enough detail for customers to clearly understand your offer, including:. Any Applicable Products and keywords defined during submission must be directly relevant to the offer. If mentioned in the summary or description, the offer type must match the type specified during submission.

Duplicate Description The descriptions cannot be the same for multiple offers. Each description should accurately represent and differentiate the services associated with the offers. Missing Estimated Price Rationale If you provide an estimated price, an explanation of why it is estimated and what factors influence the final price must be included in the description.

Please update the description with this information and resubmit your offer. Example: Price is based on scope of work. Extraneous Content in Description Your description includes a notable amount of marketing or promotional information not directly relevant to the offer.

Please remove the extraneous content and resubmit your offer. For more information, please see:. Please briefly describe the purpose or goal of your offer in characters or fewer.

Your summary cannot be the same text as the title of the offer. This will be displayed in the search box and must be different from the name of the offer. See Offer Listings. Explain how the primary product is part of this offer by specifically mentioning it and making it clear. Our goal is not to just publish your offer, but to drive more leads that will help move your business forward. It needs to be clear to the potential customer how your service is going to help their business.

See Primary products and online stores. Your description needs to have deliverables and outcomes using Markdown language for bullet points. Workshops longer than a day should include a clear daily or weekly agenda in the description. Please see examples below:. Briefings should include at least four bullets with information on topics to be covered, using Markdown formatting for the bullet points. You may format your description using HTML. If you do so, check the Preview before you go live.

Update the description and resubmit your offer. The description of your offer should not contain contact information. However, it may direct customers to the “Contact Me” button on the offer page to start a discussion. Your listing may include supporting documents with further information for your offer.

Documents may feature Microsoft competing products only in the context of migration to Microsoft products. If you choose to sell through Microsoft, the marketplace buyer must be able to activate their subscription using the Azure Active Directory Azure AD log in information that they used to purchase your marketplace offer.

If you process transactions independently using the Get it now or Free trial options, the marketplace user that acquires your offer must be able to log in to your application using Azure AD SSO. Read ” permissions during the marketplace subscription activation process. Requests requiring additional permissions can be made after the subscription activation process has been completed.

This integration should be maintained for as long as the offer is in Marketplace. Please bear in mind that while SaaS metering is optional, the fulfillment API docs do not include the metering service docs.

Microsoft apps and add-ins linked to your SaaS offer must extend your SaaS offer’s user experience and functionality. In addition:. The policies listed in this section apply only to Microsoft offers, formerly known as Office offers. Your offer listing must only describe your app or add-in, and not include advertising for other offers.

Your offer description must disclose any app or add-in features or content that require an extra charge, whether through in-app or add-in purchases or through other means. If your product offers in-app purchases, you must select the “My product requires purchase of a service or offers additional in-app purchases” check box on the Product Setup tab when submitting your offer via Partner Center.

Office add-ins must have a clear value proposition and provide a seamless first run experience FRE. If users must sign in or sign up to use the add-in, the value proposition must be clear to the user before they do so. Your app or add-in must not launch functionality outside of the app or add-in experience without the explicit permission of the user. Your app experience must not prompt a user to disclose the credentials of a Microsoft identity for example, Microsoft formerly called Office or Microsoft Azure Organizational Account, Microsoft Account, or Windows Domain Account except through Microsoft approved OAuth flow, where your app is authorized to act on behalf of the user.

Your app or add-in must not obtain, store, pass, or transmit customer information or content without notifying the user. Your app or add-in may not open pop-up windows unless they are triggered by explicit user action. Pop-up windows must not be blocked by the browser’s pop-up blocker when the blocker is set to the default value.

Your app or add-in must have a correctly sized and formatted icon specified in the package or manifest. You must provide details on the offer submission form if your app or add-in calls, supports, contains, or uses cryptography. You must specify language support for your app or add-in within the package manifest. The primary language selected when you submit your offer must be one of the specified supported languages.

The app or add-in experience must be reasonably similar in each supported language. The title may not include your brand or service unless your offer targets a larger organization or enterprise. If you update your app or add-in’s pricing or licensing terms, you must continue to offer the original functionality to the existing user base at the original pricing. All Office add-ins must use the latest version of the Microsoft-hosted Office.

Outlook add-ins with mobile support receive additional design review during validation, which adds to the required validation time. Outlook add-in design guidelines link above describes how your offer will be evaluated during the design review.

Add-ins must follow design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application. Your app or add-in must be fully functional with the supported operating systems, browsers, and devices for Office , SharePoint , and Office We recommend supporting IE, but if your add-in does not, you should advise users to install the latest Office version.

For details, see Determine at runtime if the add-in is running in Internet Explorer. Add-ins must work in all Office applications specified in the Hosts element in the add-in manifest. Add-ins must work across all platforms that support methods defined in the Requirements element in the add-in manifest, with the following platform-specific requirements:.

To help ensure an efficient validation process, if your add-in supports Single Sign-On, you must provide certification test notes explaining how your add-in uses SSO and what functionality in the add-in uses it. This information is required to ensure the validation team can test the fallback implementation. Add-ins that contain custom functions must support add-in commands. This is to ensure that users can easily discover your add-in. After an add-in is approved using the EquivalentAddins tag in the manifest, all future updates to the add-in must include this tag.

This tag ensures that your custom functions save in XLL-compatible mode. To help ensure an efficient validation process, if your add-in contains custom functions, you must provide certification test notes for at least one custom function to validate them on submission. Refer to the Teams store validation guidelines to get a better understanding of these policies and to increase the likelihood of your app passing the Microsoft Teams store validation process.

Teams app names must not copy or mimic the title of an existing Teams app or other offer in the commercial marketplace. All content should be suitable for general workplace consumption. Apps must be collaborative and designed for multiple participants. Apps catering to team bonding and socializing needs of Microsoft Teams users may be published. Such apps should not require intense time investment or perceptively impact productivity.

Teams apps must focus on the Teams experience and must not include names, icons, or imagery of other similar chat-based collaborative platforms or services unless the apps provide specific interoperability. If your app requires an account or service, you must provide a clear way for the user to sign in, sign out, and sign up across all capabilities in your app. Teams apps that depend on authentication to an external service to allow content sharing in channels, must clearly state in their help documentation or similar location how a user can disconnect or unshare any shared content if the same feature is supported on the external service.

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We will take care of all your assignment needs We are a leading online assignment help service provider. Place an Order. Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor. Main articles: Integrated circuit and Invention of the integrated circuit. Further information: Planar process and Microprocessor. See also: Classes of computers. Main articles: Computer hardware , Personal computer hardware , Central processing unit , and Microprocessor. Main article: History of computing hardware.

Main articles: CPU design and Control unit. Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor. Main article: Arithmetic logic unit. Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage. Main article: Computer multitasking. Main article: Multiprocessing. Main article: Software. Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming.

Main article: Programming language. Main article: Low-level programming language. Main article: High-level programming language. This section does not cite any sources.

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Main article: Software bug. Main articles: Computer networking and Internet. Main article: Human computer. See also: Harvard Computers. Glossary of computers Computability theory Computer security Glossary of computer hardware terms History of computer science List of computer term etymologies List of fictional computers List of pioneers in computer science Pulse computation TOP list of most powerful computers Unconventional computing.

The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book. In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.

Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took years. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in bit forms before their bit incarnations were introduced. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case. Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example, EDVAC , one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions.

All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there. These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years.

However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory. An x compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers.

Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter. Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations.

For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations.

This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices. Online Etymology Dictionary. Archived from the original on 16 November Retrieved 19 August Numbers through the ages 1st ed. Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire: Macmillan Education.

ISBN OCLC Retrieved 1 July Bibcode : Natur. PMID S2CID Archived from the original on 16 December Retrieved 12 March Wiet, V.

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A computer is a this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free electronic machine that приведенная ссылка be programmed to carry out sequences of windows 10 mobile download or logical operations computation automatically.

Modern computers can microsofg generic sets of operations known as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks. A computer system is a “complete” computer that includes the hardwareoperating system main softwareand peripheral equipment needed and used for “full” operation. This term may also refer adobe photoshop cc 2017 sign in free download this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free group of computers that are linked and function together, such as a computer network or computer cluster.

A broad range of industrial and consumer products use computers as control systems. Simple special-purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls are included, as are factory oprration like industrial robots and computer-aided designas well as instaalled devices like personal computers thie mobile devices like smartphones.

Computers power the Internetwhich links billions of other computers and users. Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the abacus have aided this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free in doing calculations since rfee times. Early in the Industrial Revolutionsome mechanical devices were built to automate long tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century.

The first digital electronic calculating machines were developed during Pronect War II. The first semiconductor operatoin in the late s were followed by opegation silicon -based MOSFET MOS transistor and monolithic integrated circuit IC chip technologies in windows 10 64 bit pro iso free late s, leading to the iw and the microcomputer revolution in the s.

The speed, power and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with transistor counts increasing at a rapid pace as predicted by Moore’s lawleading to the Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries. Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing elementtypically a central processing unit CPU operration the form of a microprocessoralong with some type of computer memorytypically semiconductor memory chips.

The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations professoonal response to stored information. Peripheral devices include input devices keyboards, mice, joysticketc.

Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved. According to the Oxford English Dictionarythe first known use of computer was in a book called The Yong Mans Gleanings by the English writer Richard Brathwait : “I haue [ sic ] read the truest computer of Times, and the best Arithmetician that euer [sic] breathed, and he reduceth thy dayes into a short number.

The word continued with the same meaning until the middle of the 20th century. During the latter part of this period women were often hired as computers because they could be paid less than their male counterparts. The Online Etymology Dictionary gives the first attested use of computer in the s, meaning ‘one who calculates’; this is an “agent noun from compute v.

The Online Etymology Dictionary states that the use of the term to mean ” ‘calculating machine’ of any type is from Devices have been used to aid computation for thousands of years, mostly using one-to-one correspondence with operstion. The earliest counting device was probably a form of tally stick.

Later record keeping aids throughout the Fertile Crescent included calculi clay spheres, cones, this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free. The abacus was initially used for arithmetic tasks. The Roman abacus was developed from devices used in Babylonia as early as BC.

Since then, many other forms of reckoning boards or tables have been invented. In a medieval European counting housea checkered cloth would be placed on a table, and markers moved around on it according to certain rules, as an aid to calculating sums of money. The Antikythera mechanism is believed to be the earliest known mechanical analog computeraccording to Derek J.

This operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free was discovered in in the Prohect wreck off the Greek island of Antikytherabetween Http://replace.me/24928.txt and Creteand has been dated to approximately c. Devices of comparable complexity to the Antikythera mechanism would not reappear until the fourteenth century.

Many mechanical aids to professinoal and measurement were constructed for astronomical and navigation use. A combination of the planisphere and dioptrathe astrolabe was effectively an analog computer capable of working out several different kinds of problems in spherical astronomy. An astrolabe incorporating a mechanical calendar computer [9] [10] and gear -wheels was invented by Abi Bakr of IsfahanPersia in The sectora calculating instrument used for solving problems in proportion, trigonometry, multiplication and division, and patch for 10 various functions, such as squares приведу ссылку cube roots, was developed in the late 16th century and found application in gunnery, surveying and navigation.

The planimeter was a manual читать статью to calculate the area of a closed figure by tracing over it with a mechanical linkage. The slide rule was invented around — адрес the English clergyman William Oughtredshortly after the publication of the concept of the logarithm.

It is a hand-operated analog computer for doing multiplication and division. As slide rule development progressed, added scales provided reciprocals, squares and square roots, cubes and cube roots, as well as transcendental продолжить чтение such as logarithms and exponentials, circular and hyperbolic trigonometry and other functions. Slide rules with special scales are still used for quick performance of routine calculations, such as the E6B circular slide rule used for time and distance calculations on light aircraft.

2103 the s, Pierre Jaquet-Droza Swiss watchmakerbuilt a mechanical doll automaton that could write holding a quill pen. By switching the number and order of its internal wheels different letters, and hence different messages, could be produced. In effect, it could be mechanically “programmed” to read instructions.

In —, mathematician and engineer Giovanni Plana devised a Perpetual Calendar machinewhich, through a system of pulleys and cylinders and over, could predict the perpetual calendar for every year from AD 0 that is, 1 BC to ADkeeping track of leap years and varying day length.

The tide-predicting machine invented by the Scottish scientist Sir William Thomson in was of great utility to navigation больше на странице shallow waters.

It used a system of pulleys and wires to automatically calculate predicted tide levels for a set period at a particular location. The differential analysera mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integrationused wheel-and-disc mechanisms to perform the integration.

InSir William Thomson had already discussed the operatikn construction of such calculators, but he had been stymied by the limited output torque of the ball-and-disk integrators. The torque amplifier was the advance that allowed these machines to work.

Starting in the s, Vannevar Bush and others developed mechanical differential analyzers. Charles Babbagean English mechanical engineer and polymathoriginated the concept of a this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free computer. Considered the ” father of the computer “, [17] he conceptualized and invented the first mechanical computer in the early 19th century.

After working on his revolutionary difference enginedesigned projdct aid in здесь calculations, in he realized that a much more general design, an Analytical Enginewas possible. The input of programs and data was to be provided to the machine via punched cardsa method being used at the time to direct mechanical looms such as the Jacquard loom.

For output, the machine would ссылка на страницу a printer, a curve plotter and a bell. The machine would also be able to punch numbers onto cards to be read in later. The Engine incorporated an arithmetic logic unitcontrol flow in the form of conditional branching and loopsand integrated memorymaking it the first design for a general-purpose computer that could be described in modern terms as Turing-complete. The machine was about a century ahead of its time.

All the parts professiknal his machine had to be made by hand — this was a major problem for a device with thousands of parts. Eventually, the project was this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free with the decision of the British Government to cease funding. Babbage’s failure to complete the analytical engine can be professkonal attributed to political and financial difficulties as well as require desire to develop an increasingly sophisticated computer and to move ahead faster than anyone else could follow.

Nevertheless, his son, Henry Babbagecompleted a simplified version of the analytical engine’s computing unit the mill in He gave a successful demonstration of its use in computing tables in During the first half of the 20th century, many scientific computing needs were met by increasingly sophisticated analog computerswhich used a direct mechanical or electrical model of the problem as a basis for computation.

However, these were not programmable and generally lacked the versatility and accuracy of modern digital computers. The differential analysera mechanical analog computer designed to solve differential equations by integration using wheel-and-disc mechanisms, was conceptualized in by James Узнать большеthe elder brother of the more famous Sir William Thomson.

The art mcirosoft mechanical analog computing reached its zenith with the differential analyzerbuilt by H. This built on the mechanical integrators of James Thomson and the torque amplifiers invented by H. A dozen of these devices were built before their перейти на страницу became obvious.

By the s, the success of digital projecg computers had spelled the end for most analog computing machines, but analog computers remained in use during the s in some specialized applications such as education slide rule and читать больше control systems.

Bythe United States Navy had developed an electromechanical analog больше информации small enough to use aboard a submarine. This was the Torpedo Data Computerwhich used trigonometry to solve the problem of firing a torpedo at a moving target. During World War II similar devices were developed in other countries as well. Early digital computers were electromechanical ; electric switches drove mechanical relays to perform the calculation.

These devices had a low operating speed and were eventually superseded by much faster all-electric computers, originally using vacuum tubes. The Z2created by German engineer Konrad Zuse inwas one of the earliest examples of an electromechanical relay computer. InZuse followed his earlier machine up with the Z3the world’s first working electromechanical programmablefully automatic digital computer.

It was quite similar to modern machines in some respects, pioneering numerous advances such as floating-point numbers. Rather than the harder-to-implement decimal system used in Charles Babbage ‘s earlier designusing a binary system meant that Zuse’s machines were easier to build and potentially more reliable, given the technologies available at that time.

Zuse’s next computer, the Z4became the world’s first commercial computer; after initial delay due to the Second World War, it was completed in and delivered to the ETH Zurich. Purely electronic circuit elements soon replaced their mechanical and electromechanical equivalents, at the same time that digital calculation replaced analog. The engineer Tommy Flowersworking at this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free Post Office Research Station in Http://replace.me/12899.txt in the s, began to explore the possible use of electronics for the telephone exchange.

Experimental equipment that he built in went into operation five years later, converting a portion of the telephone exchange network into an electronic data processing system, using thousands of vacuum tubes.

The German encryption machine, Enigmawas first attacked with the help of the electro-mechanical bombes which were often run by women. Colossus was the world’s first electronic digital programmable computer. It had paper-tape input and was capable of being configured to perform a variety of boolean logical operations on its data, but it was not Turing-complete. Colossus Mark I contained 1, thermionic valves tubesbut Mark II with 2, valves, this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free both five times faster and simpler to operate than Mark I, greatly speeding the decoding process.

Like the Colossus, a “program” on the ENIAC was defined by the states of its patch cables and switches, a far cry from the stored program electronic machines that came later.

Once a program was written, it had to be mechanically set into the machine with manual resetting of plugs and switches. It combined the high speed of electronics with the ability to be programmed for many complex problems. It could подробнее на этой странице or subtract times a second, a thousand times faster than any other machine.

It also had modules to multiply, divide, and square root. High speed memory was limited to 20 words about 80 bytes. Built under the direction this operation requires that microsoft project professional 2013 is installed free John Mauchly and J. The machine was huge, weighing 30 tons, using kilowatts of electric power and contained over 18, vacuum tubes, 1, relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors, capacitors, and inductors.

The principle of the modern computer was proposed by Alan Turing in his seminal paper, [42] On Computable Numbers.

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Each circuit represents a bit binary digit of information so that when the circuit is on it represents a “1”, and when off it represents a “0” in positive logic representation. The circuits are arranged in logic gates so that one or more of the circuits may control the state of one or more of the other circuits. When unprocessed data is sent to the computer with the help of input devices, the data is processed and sent to output devices.

The input devices may be hand-operated or automated. The act of processing is mainly regulated by the CPU. Some examples of input devices are:. The means through which computer gives output are known as output devices. Some examples of output devices are:. The control unit often called a control system or central controller manages the computer’s various components; it reads and interprets decodes the program instructions, transforming them into control signals that activate other parts of the computer.

A key component common to all CPUs is the program counter , a special memory cell a register that keeps track of which location in memory the next instruction is to be read from. The control system’s function is as follows— this is a simplified description, and some of these steps may be performed concurrently or in a different order depending on the type of CPU:.

Since the program counter is conceptually just another set of memory cells, it can be changed by calculations done in the ALU. Adding to the program counter would cause the next instruction to be read from a place locations further down the program. Instructions that modify the program counter are often known as “jumps” and allow for loops instructions that are repeated by the computer and often conditional instruction execution both examples of control flow. The sequence of operations that the control unit goes through to process an instruction is in itself like a short computer program , and indeed, in some more complex CPU designs, there is another yet smaller computer called a microsequencer , which runs a microcode program that causes all of these events to happen.

Early CPUs were composed of many separate components. Since the s, CPUs have typically been constructed on a single MOS integrated circuit chip called a microprocessor.

The ALU is capable of performing two classes of operations: arithmetic and logic. Some can operate only on whole numbers integers while others use floating point to represent real numbers , albeit with limited precision. However, any computer that is capable of performing just the simplest operations can be programmed to break down the more complex operations into simple steps that it can perform.

Therefore, any computer can be programmed to perform any arithmetic operation—although it will take more time to do so if its ALU does not directly support the operation. An ALU may also compare numbers and return Boolean truth values true or false depending on whether one is equal to, greater than or less than the other “is 64 greater than 65?

These can be useful for creating complicated conditional statements and processing Boolean logic. Superscalar computers may contain multiple ALUs, allowing them to process several instructions simultaneously.

A computer’s memory can be viewed as a list of cells into which numbers can be placed or read. Each cell has a numbered “address” and can store a single number. The computer can be instructed to “put the number into the cell numbered ” or to “add the number that is in cell to the number that is in cell and put the answer into cell Letters, numbers, even computer instructions can be placed into memory with equal ease. Since the CPU does not differentiate between different types of information, it is the software’s responsibility to give significance to what the memory sees as nothing but a series of numbers.

In almost all modern computers, each memory cell is set up to store binary numbers in groups of eight bits called a byte. To store larger numbers, several consecutive bytes may be used typically, two, four or eight. When negative numbers are required, they are usually stored in two’s complement notation.

Other arrangements are possible, but are usually not seen outside of specialized applications or historical contexts. A computer can store any kind of information in memory if it can be represented numerically. Modern computers have billions or even trillions of bytes of memory. The CPU contains a special set of memory cells called registers that can be read and written to much more rapidly than the main memory area. There are typically between two and one hundred registers depending on the type of CPU.

Registers are used for the most frequently needed data items to avoid having to access main memory every time data is needed. As data is constantly being worked on, reducing the need to access main memory which is often slow compared to the ALU and control units greatly increases the computer’s speed.

ROM is typically used to store the computer’s initial start-up instructions. In general, the contents of RAM are erased when the power to the computer is turned off, but ROM retains its data indefinitely.

In embedded computers , which frequently do not have disk drives, all of the required software may be stored in ROM. Software stored in ROM is often called firmware , because it is notionally more like hardware than software. Flash memory blurs the distinction between ROM and RAM, as it retains its data when turned off but is also rewritable.

It is typically much slower than conventional ROM and RAM however, so its use is restricted to applications where high speed is unnecessary. In more sophisticated computers there may be one or more RAM cache memories , which are slower than registers but faster than main memory. Generally computers with this sort of cache are designed to move frequently needed data into the cache automatically, often without the need for any intervention on the programmer’s part.

Hard disk drives , floppy disk drives and optical disc drives serve as both input and output devices. A graphics processing unit might contain fifty or more tiny computers that perform the calculations necessary to display 3D graphics. A era flat screen display contains its own computer circuitry. While a computer may be viewed as running one gigantic program stored in its main memory, in some systems it is necessary to give the appearance of running several programs simultaneously.

This is achieved by multitasking i. By remembering where it was executing prior to the interrupt, the computer can return to that task later. If several programs are running “at the same time”. Since modern computers typically execute instructions several orders of magnitude faster than human perception, it may appear that many programs are running at the same time even though only one is ever executing in any given instant.

This method of multitasking is sometimes termed “time-sharing” since each program is allocated a “slice” of time in turn. Before the era of inexpensive computers, the principal use for multitasking was to allow many people to share the same computer.

If a program is waiting for the user to click on the mouse or press a key on the keyboard, then it will not take a “time slice” until the event it is waiting for has occurred.

This frees up time for other programs to execute so that many programs may be run simultaneously without unacceptable speed loss. Some computers are designed to distribute their work across several CPUs in a multiprocessing configuration, a technique once employed in only large and powerful machines such as supercomputers , mainframe computers and servers. Multiprocessor and multi-core multiple CPUs on a single integrated circuit personal and laptop computers are now widely available, and are being increasingly used in lower-end markets as a result.

Supercomputers in particular often have highly unique architectures that differ significantly from the basic stored-program architecture and from general-purpose computers. Such designs tend to be useful for only specialized tasks due to the large scale of program organization required to successfully utilize most of the available resources at once.

Supercomputers usually see usage in large-scale simulation , graphics rendering , and cryptography applications, as well as with other so-called ” embarrassingly parallel ” tasks. Software refers to parts of the computer which do not have a material form, such as programs, data, protocols, etc. Software is that part of a computer system that consists of encoded information or computer instructions, in contrast to the physical hardware from which the system is built. Computer software includes computer programs , libraries and related non-executable data , such as online documentation or digital media.

It is often divided into system software and application software Computer hardware and software require each other and neither can be realistically used on its own.

There are thousands of different programming languages—some intended for general purpose, others useful for only highly specialized applications. The defining feature of modern computers which distinguishes them from all other machines is that they can be programmed. That is to say that some type of instructions the program can be given to the computer, and it will process them. Modern computers based on the von Neumann architecture often have machine code in the form of an imperative programming language.

In practical terms, a computer program may be just a few instructions or extend to many millions of instructions, as do the programs for word processors and web browsers for example. A typical modern computer can execute billions of instructions per second gigaflops and rarely makes a mistake over many years of operation.

Large computer programs consisting of several million instructions may take teams of programmers years to write, and due to the complexity of the task almost certainly contain errors. This section applies to most common RAM machine —based computers. In most cases, computer instructions are simple: add one number to another, move some data from one location to another, send a message to some external device, etc.

These instructions are read from the computer’s memory and are generally carried out executed in the order they were given. However, there are usually specialized instructions to tell the computer to jump ahead or backwards to some other place in the program and to carry on executing from there. These are called “jump” instructions or branches. Furthermore, jump instructions may be made to happen conditionally so that different sequences of instructions may be used depending on the result of some previous calculation or some external event.

Many computers directly support subroutines by providing a type of jump that “remembers” the location it jumped from and another instruction to return to the instruction following that jump instruction. Program execution might be likened to reading a book. While a person will normally read each word and line in sequence, they may at times jump back to an earlier place in the text or skip sections that are not of interest. Similarly, a computer may sometimes go back and repeat the instructions in some section of the program over and over again until some internal condition is met.

This is called the flow of control within the program and it is what allows the computer to perform tasks repeatedly without human intervention. Comparatively, a person using a pocket calculator can perform a basic arithmetic operation such as adding two numbers with just a few button presses.

But to add together all of the numbers from 1 to 1, would take thousands of button presses and a lot of time, with a near certainty of making a mistake. On the other hand, a computer may be programmed to do this with just a few simple instructions.

The following example is written in the MIPS assembly language :. Once told to run this program, the computer will perform the repetitive addition task without further human intervention. It will almost never make a mistake and a modern PC can complete the task in a fraction of a second. In most computers, individual instructions are stored as machine code with each instruction being given a unique number its operation code or opcode for short.

The command to add two numbers together would have one opcode; the command to multiply them would have a different opcode, and so on. The simplest computers are able to perform any of a handful of different instructions; the more complex computers have several hundred to choose from, each with a unique numerical code. Since the computer’s memory is able to store numbers, it can also store the instruction codes.

This leads to the important fact that entire programs which are just lists of these instructions can be represented as lists of numbers and can themselves be manipulated inside the computer in the same way as numeric data.

The fundamental concept of storing programs in the computer’s memory alongside the data they operate on is the crux of the von Neumann, or stored program, architecture. This is called the Harvard architecture after the Harvard Mark I computer. Modern von Neumann computers display some traits of the Harvard architecture in their designs, such as in CPU caches. While it is possible to write computer programs as long lists of numbers machine language and while this technique was used with many early computers, [h] it is extremely tedious and potentially error-prone to do so in practice, especially for complicated programs.

These mnemonics are collectively known as a computer’s assembly language. Converting programs written in assembly language into something the computer can actually understand machine language is usually done by a computer program called an assembler.

Programming languages provide various ways of specifying programs for computers to run. Unlike natural languages , programming languages are designed to permit no ambiguity and to be concise. They are purely written languages and are often difficult to read aloud. They are generally either translated into machine code by a compiler or an assembler before being run, or translated directly at run time by an interpreter. Sometimes programs are executed by a hybrid method of the two techniques.

Machine languages and the assembly languages that represent them collectively termed low-level programming languages are generally unique to the particular architecture of a computer’s central processing unit CPU. Although considerably easier than in machine language, writing long programs in assembly language is often difficult and is also error prone.

Therefore, most practical programs are written in more abstract high-level programming languages that are able to express the needs of the programmer more conveniently and thereby help reduce programmer error.

High level languages are usually “compiled” into machine language or sometimes into assembly language and then into machine language using another computer program called a compiler. It is therefore often possible to use different compilers to translate the same high level language program into the machine language of many different types of computer. This is part of the means by which software like video games may be made available for different computer architectures such as personal computers and various video game consoles.

Program design of small programs is relatively simple and involves the analysis of the problem, collection of inputs, using the programming constructs within languages, devising or using established procedures and algorithms, providing data for output devices and solutions to the problem as applicable. As problems become larger and more complex, features such as subprograms, modules, formal documentation, and new paradigms such as object-oriented programming are encountered.

Large programs involving thousands of line of code and more require formal software methodologies. The task of developing large software systems presents a significant intellectual challenge. Producing software with an acceptably high reliability within a predictable schedule and budget has historically been difficult; the academic and professional discipline of software engineering concentrates specifically on this challenge.

Errors in computer programs are called ” bugs “. They may be benign and not affect the usefulness of the program, or have only subtle effects. But in some cases, they may cause the program or the entire system to ” hang “, becoming unresponsive to input such as mouse clicks or keystrokes, to completely fail, or to crash.

Bugs are usually not the fault of the computer. Since computers merely execute the instructions they are given, bugs are nearly always the result of programmer error or an oversight made in the program’s design. Computers have been used to coordinate information between multiple locations since the s. The U. In time, the network spread beyond academic and military institutions and became known as the Internet. The emergence of networking involved a redefinition of the nature and boundaries of the computer.

Computer operating systems and applications were modified to include the ability to define and access the resources of other computers on the network, such as peripheral devices, stored information, and the like, as extensions of the resources of an individual computer.

Initially these facilities were available primarily to people working in high-tech environments, but in the s the spread of applications like e-mail and the World Wide Web , combined with the development of cheap, fast networking technologies like Ethernet and ADSL saw computer networking become almost ubiquitous. In fact, the number of computers that are networked is growing phenomenally. A very large proportion of personal computers regularly connect to the Internet to communicate and receive information.

A computer does not need to be electronic , nor even have a processor , nor RAM , nor even a hard disk. While popular usage of the word “computer” is synonymous with a personal electronic computer, [l] the modern definition of a computer is literally: ” A device that computes , especially a programmable [usually] electronic machine that performs high-speed mathematical or logical operations or that assembles, stores, correlates, or otherwise processes information.

There is active research to make computers out of many promising new types of technology, such as optical computers , DNA computers , neural computers , and quantum computers. Most computers are universal, and are able to calculate any computable function , and are limited only by their memory capacity and operating speed. However different designs of computers can give very different performance for particular problems; for example quantum computers can potentially break some modern encryption algorithms by quantum factoring very quickly.

There are many types of computer architectures :. Of all these abstract machines , a quantum computer holds the most promise for revolutionizing computing. The ability to store and execute lists of instructions called programs makes computers extremely versatile, distinguishing them from calculators. The Church—Turing thesis is a mathematical statement of this versatility: any computer with a minimum capability being Turing-complete is, in principle, capable of performing the same tasks that any other computer can perform.

Therefore, any type of computer netbook , supercomputer , cellular automaton , etc. A computer will solve problems in exactly the way it is programmed to, without regard to efficiency, alternative solutions, possible shortcuts, or possible errors in the code. Computer programs that learn and adapt are part of the emerging field of artificial intelligence and machine learning.

Artificial intelligence based products generally fall into two major categories: rule-based systems and pattern recognition systems. Rule-based systems attempt to represent the rules used by human experts and tend to be expensive to develop. Pattern-based systems use data about a problem to generate conclusions. Examples of pattern-based systems include voice recognition , font recognition, translation and the emerging field of on-line marketing.

As the use of computers has spread throughout society, there are an increasing number of careers involving computers. The need for computers to work well together and to be able to exchange information has spawned the need for many standards organizations, clubs and societies of both a formal and informal nature.

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Automatic general-purpose device for performing arithmetic or logical operations. For other uses, see Computer disambiguation. Computers and computing devices from different eras. Main articles: History of computing and History of computing hardware. For a chronological guide, see Timeline of computing.

Main article: Analog computer. Main article: Stored-program computer. Main articles: Transistor and History of the transistor. Main articles: Integrated circuit and Invention of the integrated circuit. Further information: Planar process and Microprocessor. See also: Classes of computers. Main articles: Computer hardware , Personal computer hardware , Central processing unit , and Microprocessor. Main article: History of computing hardware. Main articles: CPU design and Control unit.

Main articles: Central processing unit and Microprocessor. Main article: Arithmetic logic unit. Main articles: Computer memory and Computer data storage. Main article: Computer multitasking. Main article: Multiprocessing. Main article: Software. Main articles: Computer program and Computer programming. Main article: Programming language. Main article: Low-level programming language. Main article: High-level programming language. This section does not cite any sources.

Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. July Learn how and when to remove this template message. Main article: Software bug.

Main articles: Computer networking and Internet. Main article: Human computer. See also: Harvard Computers. Glossary of computers Computability theory Computer security Glossary of computer hardware terms History of computer science List of computer term etymologies List of fictional computers List of pioneers in computer science Pulse computation TOP list of most powerful computers Unconventional computing. The containers thus served as something of a bill of lading or an accounts book.

In order to avoid breaking open the containers, first, clay impressions of the tokens were placed on the outside of the containers, for the count; the shapes of the impressions were abstracted into stylized marks; finally, the abstract marks were systematically used as numerals; these numerals were finally formalized as numbers. Eventually the marks on the outside of the containers were all that were needed to convey the count, and the clay containers evolved into clay tablets with marks for the count.

Schmandt-Besserat estimates it took years. All of the architectures listed in this table, except for Alpha, existed in bit forms before their bit incarnations were introduced. Although the control unit is solely responsible for instruction interpretation in most modern computers, this is not always the case.

Some computers have instructions that are partially interpreted by the control unit with further interpretation performed by another device. For example, EDVAC , one of the earliest stored-program computers, used a central control unit that interpreted only four instructions. All of the arithmetic-related instructions were passed on to its arithmetic unit and further decoded there.

These so-called computer clusters can often provide supercomputer performance at a much lower cost than customized designs. While custom architectures are still used for most of the most powerful supercomputers, there has been a proliferation of cluster computers in recent years. However, this method was usually used only as part of the booting process. Most modern computers boot entirely automatically by reading a boot program from some non-volatile memory.

An x compatible microprocessor like the AMD Athlon 64 is able to run most of the same programs that an Intel Core 2 microprocessor can, as well as programs designed for earlier microprocessors like the Intel Pentiums and Intel This contrasts with very early commercial computers, which were often one-of-a-kind and totally incompatible with other computers. Interpreted languages are translated into machine code on the fly, while running, by another program called an interpreter.

Computer hardware may fail or may itself have a fundamental problem that produces unexpected results in certain situations. For instance, the Pentium FDIV bug caused some Intel microprocessors in the early s to produce inaccurate results for certain floating point division operations. This was caused by a flaw in the microprocessor design and resulted in a partial recall of the affected devices.

Online Etymology Dictionary.

Computer security , cybersecurity cyber security , or information technology security IT security is the protection of computer systems and networks from information disclosure, theft of, or damage to their hardware , software , or electronic data , as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.

The field has become of significance due to the expanded reliance on computer systems , the Internet , [3] and wireless network standards such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi , and due to the growth of “smart” devices , including smartphones , televisions , and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things IoT. Cybersecurity is also one of the significant challenges in the contemporary world , due to the complexity of information systems , both in terms of political usage and technology.

Its primary goal is to ensure the system’s dependability, integrity, and data privacy. Since the Internet ‘s arrival and with the digital transformation initiated in recent years, the notion of cybersecurity has become a familiar subject in both our professional and personal lives.

Cybersecurity and cyber threats have been consistently present for the last 50 years of technological change. In the s and s, computer security was mainly limited to academia until the conception of the Internet, where, with increased connectivity, computer viruses and network intrusions began to take off. After the spread of viruses in the s, the s marked the institutionalization [ clarification needed ] of cyber threats and cybersecurity. The April session organized by Willis Ware at the Spring Joint Computer Conference , and the later publication of the Ware Report , were foundational moments in the history of the field of computer security.

However, in the s and s there were no grave computer threats because computers and the internet were still developing, and security threats were easily identifiable.

Most often, threats came from malicious insiders who gained unauthorized access to sensitive documents and files. Although malware and network breaches existed during the early years, they did not use them for financial gain.

By the second half of the s, established computer firms like IBM started offering commercial access control systems and computer security software products. It started with Creeper in It is considered the first computer worm. In , the first anti-virus software was created, called Reaper. Between September and June , a group of German hackers performed the first documented case of cyber espionage.

The group hacked into American defense contractors, universities, and military bases’ networks and sold gathered information to the Soviet KGB. The group was led by Markus Hess , who was arrested on 29 June He was convicted of espionage along with two co-conspirators on 15 Feb In , one of the first computer worms, called the Morris worm , was distributed via the Internet.

It gained significant mainstream media attention. Netscape had SSL version 1. These weaknesses included replay attacks and a vulnerability that allowed hackers to alter unencrypted communications sent by users. However, in February , Netscape launched the Version 2. Protecting information systems includes evaluating software, identifying security flaws, and taking steps to correct the flaws, which is a defensive action.

Collecting intelligence includes exploiting security flaws to extract information, which is an offensive action. Correcting security flaws makes the flaws unavailable for NSA exploitation. The agency analyzes commonly used software in order to find security flaws, which it reserves for offensive purposes against competitors of the United States.

The agency seldom takes defensive action by reporting the flaws to software producers so that they can eliminate them. The offensive strategy worked for a while, but eventually other nations, including Russia , Iran , North Korea , and China , acquired their own offensive capability and have tended to use it against the United States.

NSA contractors created and sold “click-and-shoot” attack tools to U. NSA’s employees and contractors have been recruited at high salaries by adversaries, anxious to compete in cyberwarfare. For example, in , the United States and Israel began exploiting security flaws in the Microsoft Windows operating system to attack and damage equipment used in Iran to refine nuclear materials.

Iran responded by heavily investing in their own cyberwarfare capability, which they began using against the United States. A vulnerability is a weakness in design, implementation, operation, or internal control. Most of the vulnerabilities that have been discovered are documented in the Common Vulnerabilities and Exposures CVE database. A backdoor in a computer system, a cryptosystem or an algorithm , is any secret method of bypassing normal authentication or security controls.

They may exist for many reasons, including by original design or poor configuration. They may have been added by an authorized party to allow some legitimate access, or by an attacker for malicious reasons; but regardless of the motives for their existence, they create a vulnerability.

Backdoors can be very hard to detect, and backdoors are usually discovered by someone who has access to application source code or intimate knowledge of the operating system of the computer. Denial of service attacks DoS are designed to make a machine or network resource unavailable to its intended users. While a network attack from a single IP address can be blocked by adding a new firewall rule, many forms of Distributed denial of service DDoS attacks are possible, where the attack comes from a large number of points — and defending is much more difficult.

Such attacks can originate from the zombie computers of a botnet or from a range of other possible techniques, including reflection and amplification attacks , where innocent systems are fooled into sending traffic to the victim.

An unauthorized user gaining physical access to a computer is most likely able to directly copy data from it. They may also compromise security by making operating system modifications, installing software worms, keyloggers , covert listening devices or using wireless microphones. Even when the system is protected by standard security measures, these may be bypassed by booting another operating system or tool from a CD-ROM or other bootable media.

Disk encryption and Trusted Platform Module are designed to prevent these attacks. Eavesdropping is the act of surreptitiously listening to a private computer “conversation” communication , typically between hosts on a network. Even machines that operate as a closed system i. Surfacing in , a new class of multi-vector, [18] polymorphic [19] cyber threats combined several types of attacks and changed form to avoid cybersecurity controls as they spread.

Phishing is the attempt of acquiring sensitive information such as usernames, passwords, and credit card details directly from users by deceiving the users.

The fake website often asks for personal information, such as log-in details and passwords. This information can then be used to gain access to the individual’s real account on the real website. Preying on a victim’s trust, phishing can be classified as a form of social engineering. Attackers are using creative ways to gain access to real accounts.

A common scam is for attackers to send fake electronic invoices [21] to individuals showing that they recently purchased music, apps, or others, and instructing them to click on a link if the purchases were not authorized. Privilege escalation describes a situation where an attacker with some level of restricted access is able to, without authorization, elevate their privileges or access level.

For example, a standard computer user may be able to exploit a vulnerability in the system to gain access to restricted data; or even become ” root ” and have full unrestricted access to a system.

Reverse engineering is the process by which a man-made object is deconstructed to reveal its designs, code, architecture, or to extract knowledge from the object; similar to scientific research, the only difference being that scientific research is about a natural phenomenon.

Any computational system affects its environment in some form. This effect it has on its environment, includes a wide range of criteria, which can range from electromagnetic radiation, to residual effect on RAM cells which as a consequent make a Cold boot attack possible, to hardware implementation faults which allow for access and or guessing of other values that normally should be inaccessible. In Side-channel attack scenarios the attacker would gather such information about a system or network to guess its internal state, and as a result access the information which is assumed by the victim to be secure.

Social engineering , in the context of computer security, aims to convince a user to disclose secrets such as passwords, card numbers, etc. A common scam involves emails sent to accounting and finance department personnel, impersonating their CEO and urgently requesting some action.

In May , the Milwaukee Bucks NBA team was the victim of this type of cyber scam with a perpetrator impersonating the team’s president Peter Feigin , resulting in the handover of all the team’s employees’ W-2 tax forms. Spoofing is an act of masquerading as a valid entity through falsification of data such as an IP address or username , in order to gain access to information or resources that one is otherwise unauthorized to obtain.

Tampering describes a malicious modification or alteration of data. So-called Evil Maid attacks and security services planting of surveillance capability into routers are examples. Malicious software malware installed on a computer can leak any information, such as personal information, business information and passwords, can give control of the system to the attacker, and can corrupt or delete data permanently.

Employee behavior can have a big impact on information security in organizations. Cultural concepts can help different segments of the organization work effectively or work against effectiveness towards information security within an organization.

Information security culture is the ” Andersson and Reimers found that employees often do not see themselves as part of their organization’s information security effort and often take actions that impede organizational changes.

The growth in the number of computer systems and the increasing reliance upon them by individuals, businesses, industries, and governments means that there are an increasing number of systems at risk. The computer systems of financial regulators and financial institutions like the U.

Securities and Exchange Commission , SWIFT, investment banks, and commercial banks are prominent hacking targets for cybercriminals interested in manipulating markets and making illicit gains. Computers control functions at many utilities, including coordination of telecommunications , the power grid , nuclear power plants , and valve opening and closing in water and gas networks. The Internet is a potential attack vector for such machines if connected, but the Stuxnet worm demonstrated that even equipment controlled by computers not connected to the Internet can be vulnerable.

In , the Computer Emergency Readiness Team , a division of the Department of Homeland Security , investigated 79 hacking incidents at energy companies.

The aviation industry is very reliant on a series of complex systems which could be attacked. The consequences of a successful attack range from loss of confidentiality to loss of system integrity, air traffic control outages, loss of aircraft, and even loss of life.

Desktop computers and laptops are commonly targeted to gather passwords or financial account information, or to construct a botnet to attack another target. Smartphones , tablet computers , smart watches , and other mobile devices such as quantified self devices like activity trackers have sensors such as cameras, microphones, GPS receivers, compasses, and accelerometers which could be exploited, and may collect personal information, including sensitive health information.

WiFi, Bluetooth, and cell phone networks on any of these devices could be used as attack vectors, and sensors might be remotely activated after a successful breach. The increasing number of home automation devices such as the Nest thermostat are also potential targets. Large corporations are common targets.

In many cases attacks are aimed at financial gain through identity theft and involve data breaches. Examples include the loss of millions of clients’ credit card details by Home Depot , [47] Staples , [48] Target Corporation , [49] and the most recent breach of Equifax.

Medical records have been targeted in general identify theft, health insurance fraud, and impersonating patients to obtain prescription drugs for recreational purposes or resale. Not all attacks are financially motivated, however: security firm HBGary Federal suffered a serious series of attacks in from hacktivist group Anonymous in retaliation for the firm’s CEO claiming to have infiltrated their group, [53] [54] and Sony Pictures was hacked in with the apparent dual motive of embarrassing the company through data leaks and crippling the company by wiping workstations and servers.

Vehicles are increasingly computerized, with engine timing, cruise control , anti-lock brakes , seat belt tensioners, door locks, airbags and advanced driver-assistance systems on many models. Additionally, connected cars may use WiFi and Bluetooth to communicate with onboard consumer devices and the cell phone network. All of these systems carry some security risk, and such issues have gained wide attention. Simple examples of risk include a malicious compact disc being used as an attack vector, [61] and the car’s onboard microphones being used for eavesdropping.

However, if access is gained to a car’s internal controller area network , the danger is much greater [57] — and in a widely publicized test, hackers remotely carjacked a vehicle from 10 miles away and drove it into a ditch. Manufacturers are reacting in numerous ways, with Tesla in pushing out some security fixes “over the air” into its cars’ computer systems. Government and military computer systems are commonly attacked by activists [67] [68] [69] and foreign powers.

The Internet of things IoT is the network of physical objects such as devices, vehicles, and buildings that are embedded with electronics , software , sensors , and network connectivity that enables them to collect and exchange data.

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Please remove the extraneous content and resubmit your offer. For more information, please see:. Please briefly describe the purpose or goal of your offer in characters or fewer. Your summary cannot be the same text as the title of the offer. This will be displayed in the search box and must be different from the name of the offer.

See Offer Listings. Explain how the primary product is part of this offer by specifically mentioning it and making it clear. Our goal is not to just publish your offer, but to drive more leads that will help move your business forward.

It needs to be clear to the potential customer how your service is going to help their business. See Primary products and online stores. Your description needs to have deliverables and outcomes using Markdown language for bullet points. Workshops longer than a day should include a clear daily or weekly agenda in the description. Please see examples below:. Briefings should include at least four bullets with information on topics to be covered, using Markdown formatting for the bullet points.

You may format your description using HTML. If you do so, check the Preview before you go live. Update the description and resubmit your offer. The description of your offer should not contain contact information. However, it may direct customers to the “Contact Me” button on the offer page to start a discussion.

Your listing may include supporting documents with further information for your offer. Documents may feature Microsoft competing products only in the context of migration to Microsoft products. If you choose to sell through Microsoft, the marketplace buyer must be able to activate their subscription using the Azure Active Directory Azure AD log in information that they used to purchase your marketplace offer.

If you process transactions independently using the Get it now or Free trial options, the marketplace user that acquires your offer must be able to log in to your application using Azure AD SSO. Read ” permissions during the marketplace subscription activation process. Requests requiring additional permissions can be made after the subscription activation process has been completed.

This integration should be maintained for as long as the offer is in Marketplace. Please bear in mind that while SaaS metering is optional, the fulfillment API docs do not include the metering service docs. Microsoft apps and add-ins linked to your SaaS offer must extend your SaaS offer’s user experience and functionality. In addition:. The policies listed in this section apply only to Microsoft offers, formerly known as Office offers.

Your offer listing must only describe your app or add-in, and not include advertising for other offers. Your offer description must disclose any app or add-in features or content that require an extra charge, whether through in-app or add-in purchases or through other means. If your product offers in-app purchases, you must select the “My product requires purchase of a service or offers additional in-app purchases” check box on the Product Setup tab when submitting your offer via Partner Center.

Office add-ins must have a clear value proposition and provide a seamless first run experience FRE. If users must sign in or sign up to use the add-in, the value proposition must be clear to the user before they do so.

Your app or add-in must not launch functionality outside of the app or add-in experience without the explicit permission of the user. Your app experience must not prompt a user to disclose the credentials of a Microsoft identity for example, Microsoft formerly called Office or Microsoft Azure Organizational Account, Microsoft Account, or Windows Domain Account except through Microsoft approved OAuth flow, where your app is authorized to act on behalf of the user.

Your app or add-in must not obtain, store, pass, or transmit customer information or content without notifying the user. Your app or add-in may not open pop-up windows unless they are triggered by explicit user action. Pop-up windows must not be blocked by the browser’s pop-up blocker when the blocker is set to the default value.

Your app or add-in must have a correctly sized and formatted icon specified in the package or manifest. You must provide details on the offer submission form if your app or add-in calls, supports, contains, or uses cryptography. You must specify language support for your app or add-in within the package manifest.

The primary language selected when you submit your offer must be one of the specified supported languages. The app or add-in experience must be reasonably similar in each supported language. The title may not include your brand or service unless your offer targets a larger organization or enterprise.

If you update your app or add-in’s pricing or licensing terms, you must continue to offer the original functionality to the existing user base at the original pricing. All Office add-ins must use the latest version of the Microsoft-hosted Office.

Outlook add-ins with mobile support receive additional design review during validation, which adds to the required validation time. Outlook add-in design guidelines link above describes how your offer will be evaluated during the design review. Add-ins must follow design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application.

Your app or add-in must be fully functional with the supported operating systems, browsers, and devices for Office , SharePoint , and Office We recommend supporting IE, but if your add-in does not, you should advise users to install the latest Office version. For details, see Determine at runtime if the add-in is running in Internet Explorer. Add-ins must work in all Office applications specified in the Hosts element in the add-in manifest.

Add-ins must work across all platforms that support methods defined in the Requirements element in the add-in manifest, with the following platform-specific requirements:. To help ensure an efficient validation process, if your add-in supports Single Sign-On, you must provide certification test notes explaining how your add-in uses SSO and what functionality in the add-in uses it.

This information is required to ensure the validation team can test the fallback implementation. Add-ins that contain custom functions must support add-in commands. This is to ensure that users can easily discover your add-in. After an add-in is approved using the EquivalentAddins tag in the manifest, all future updates to the add-in must include this tag.

This tag ensures that your custom functions save in XLL-compatible mode. To help ensure an efficient validation process, if your add-in contains custom functions, you must provide certification test notes for at least one custom function to validate them on submission. Refer to the Teams store validation guidelines to get a better understanding of these policies and to increase the likelihood of your app passing the Microsoft Teams store validation process.

Teams app names must not copy or mimic the title of an existing Teams app or other offer in the commercial marketplace. All content should be suitable for general workplace consumption. Apps must be collaborative and designed for multiple participants.

Apps catering to team bonding and socializing needs of Microsoft Teams users may be published. Such apps should not require intense time investment or perceptively impact productivity. Teams apps must focus on the Teams experience and must not include names, icons, or imagery of other similar chat-based collaborative platforms or services unless the apps provide specific interoperability. If your app requires an account or service, you must provide a clear way for the user to sign in, sign out, and sign up across all capabilities in your app.

Teams apps that depend on authentication to an external service to allow content sharing in channels, must clearly state in their help documentation or similar location how a user can disconnect or unshare any shared content if the same feature is supported on the external service.

The ability to unshare the content does not have to be present in the Teams app, but the process should be clearly documented, and the documentation should be accessible from within the app. Financial transaction details must not be transmitted to users through a bot interface. Apps may only receive payment information through a user interface linked to a secure purchase API.

Apps may only link to secure payment services if the link is disclosed in the App’s terms of use, privacy policy, app description, and any profile page or associated website before the user agrees to use the app.

No payment shall be made through an app for goods or services prohibited by General policy Domains outside of your organization’s control including wildcards and tunneling services cannot be included in the valid domains of your manifest, except in the following conditions:.

App packages must be correctly formatted and conform to the latest release of the manifest schema. Apps may not launch functionality outside of the Microsoft Teams app experience without the explicit permission of the user. Compatibility: Teams apps must be fully functional on the latest versions of the following operating systems and browsers:. For other unsupported operating systems and browsers, apps must provide a graceful failure message.

Teams apps must follow Teams tab design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application. Teams apps must follow Teams bot design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application.

Bot information in the app manifest must be consistent with the bot’s Bot Framework metadata bot name, logo, privacy link, and terms of service link. Bots must not spam users by sending multiple messages in short succession. Avoid multi turn conversations in a bot response. Bots in collaborative scope must send a welcome message on first launch if the app has a complex configuration workflow.

Welcome message must follow Bot welcome message guidelines. Teams apps must follow Teams messaging extension design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application.

Do not add domains that are outside your control either absolute URLs or wildcards. For example, yourapp. Teams apps must follow Teams task module design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application. Task modules should not embed an entire app. Task modules should only display the components required to complete a specific action. Teams apps must follow Teams meeting extension design guidelines without impeding the customer experience within the host application.

Teams meeting apps must provide a responsive in-meeting experience aligned with the Teams meeting experience. If an app offers a pre-meeting or post-meeting experience, these must be relevant to the meeting workflow.

In-meeting experience must not take users outside the Teams meeting for core experiences. Apps must provide value beyond only offering custom Together Mode scenes in Teams meetings. The following additional requirements apply for Teams apps linked to a Software as a Service SaaS offer. Users must be able to complete the end-to-end purchase flows with adequate information at each step. Admin users must be able to complete end-to-end bulk purchase flows from the Microsoft Teams Admin Center.

After successful purchase and assignment of licenses, your offer must provide enough value to justify the purchase and users must have access to the subscribed plan features in Teams. For testing purposes, your Teams app submission to Partner Center must include an end-to-end E2E functional document, linked SaaS offer configuration steps, and instructions for license and user management as part of the Notes for Certification.

Teams apps must complete Publisher Attestation in Partner Center. If the solution requires full trust formerly known as high trust permissions, you will need to follow the guidelines from this Developer Blog post.

Add-ins designed for the modern SharePoint experience are not required to support the classic SharePoint experience. If your add-in supports only the classic experience, you must include that limitation in your add-in description.

Add-ins must not have remote debugging settings enabled. The manifest for your add-in must not include the DebugInfo element. SharePoint Framework solutions can request any permissions with the solution manifest.

High permissions requests will need to be justified and clarified as part of the solution submission process. Solutions are only required to be tested in the non-root site of a modern SharePoint site. Response times must be reasonable.

Responses that take more than three seconds must display a loading message or warning. Offers should include the E2E functional document. Alternatively, SPFx solution functionality demonstration video links can be included in the Notes for Certification. It must be compatible with supported operating systems, browsers, and devices for Power BI, including touch-only devices without a physical keyboard or mouse.

All visuals must support the context menu right click menu. You can learn more about the context menu here. Your visual must support the core functions of Power BI for that visual type, including but not limited to pinning to dashboard, filtering focus mode, and formatting various data types.

Your visual must not launch functionality outside of the visual experience without the explicit permission of the user. Your visual must not prompt a user to disclose the credentials of a Microsoft identity for example, Microsoft formerly called Office or Microsoft Azure Organizational Account, Microsoft Account, or Windows Domain Account except through Microsoft approved OAuth flow, where your visual is authorized to act on behalf of the user.

Your visual may not open pop-up windows unless they are triggered by explicit user action. Power BI visuals must be accompanied by a sample file in. The version and content of the. For the best user experience, consider adding Hits and Tips for using the visual to the sample file. Your source code should be readable, maintainable, expose no functionality errors, and correspond to the provided visual’s package. Your source code should comply with all security and privacy policies.

The Board acknowledged that, based on comments to the ANPRM, the draft rule needed to be reorganized and made more concise. More importantly, we needed to obtain further comment on major issues and harmonize with the European Commission’s ICT standardization efforts that were already underway at that time.

To address comments criticizing the length and organization of the ANPRM as unwieldy, the revised draft rule consolidated and streamlined provisions into six chapters from ten , consolidated advisories, and reduced the page count from close to to less than We also made revisions to improve the clarity of various proposed provisions and ensure a consistent organizational structure throughout this draft rule.

See, e. Additionally, to address commenters’ collective concern that rephrasing of WCAG 2. In issuing the ANPRM, the Access Board also took notice of the standardization work going on in Europe at the time, stating: [T]he Board is interested in harmonizing with standards efforts around the world in a timely way.

Accordingly, the Board is now releasing this second Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking ANPRM to seek further comment on specific questions and to harmonize with contemporaneous standardization efforts underway by the European Commission. Comments came from industry, Federal and state governments, foreign and domestic companies specializing in information technology, disability advocacy groups, manufacturers of hardware and software, trade associations and trade organizations, institutions of higher education and research, accessibility consultants, assistive technology industry and related organizations, and individual stakeholders who did not identify with any of these groups.

In general, commenters continued to agree with our approach to address ICT accessibility by focusing on features, rather than discrete product types. Commenters supported the conciseness of the proposed provisions in the ANPRM, and asked for further streamlining where possible.

Commenters also generally voiced strong support for the Board’s decision to incorporate by reference WCAG 2. In , the Access Board formally commenced the rulemaking process by issuing a notice of proposed rulemaking to update the existing Standards and Guidelines.

This proposed rule—while making editorial changes and other updates in response to comments on the ANPRM— retained the same overall structure and approach to referencing WCAG 2.

Additionally, written comments were received in response to the NPRM. Comments came from industry, Federal and state governments, disability advocacy groups, manufacturers of hardware and software, trade associations and trade organizations, institutions of higher education and research, and individuals who did not identify with any of these groups.

Overall, we received about comments in response to the NPRM, including written comments and oral testimony from witnesses at the three public hearings.

These commenters represented, when excluding multiple submissions, about different entities or individuals. By general category, these NPRM commenters can be broken down as follows: individuals 59 ; disability advocacy organizations 59 ; ICT companies 10 ; accessible ICT services providers 11 ; trade associations representing ITC and telecommunications companies 11 ; individuals or groups identifying themselves as ICT subject matter experts 13 ; academicians 6 ; state or local governmental agencies 7 ; standards development organizations 3 ; international disability advocacy organizations 9 ; and, anonymous 4.

In general, commenters spoke positively about the proposed rule, and noted that it was much improved from earlier iterations in the and ANPRMs. By a wide margin, the single most commented-upon aspect of the proposed rule and the issue on which commenters expressed the greatest unanimity was timing. Characterizing refresh of the Standards and Guidelines as “long overdue,” these commenters urged the Access Board to issue its final rule as expeditiously as possible.

On substantive matters, a large number of commenters addressed some aspect of the requirements for electronic content, with the bulk of these comments relating to Section covered content. Another technical area receiving sizeable comment was our proposal that, under both Sections and , WCAG 2.

Additionally, real-time text RTT was a subject of great interest to NPRM commenters, with most commenters representing disability advocacy organizations and academicians supporting the Board’s RTT proposal, while ITC manufacturers and trade groups expressed opposition.

Further, the issue of harmonization with EN received considerable comment. In general, ITC industry-related commenters urged the Board to harmonize more closely with this European specification.

Disability advocacy organizations and consumer-related commenters, on the other hand, viewed the proposed rule and EN as well harmonized already and expressed concern that further harmonization would be improvident because, in their view, EN set forth weaker accessibility requirements in some areas.

Lastly, the Board received multiple comments from individuals or entities addressing various types of electromagnetic sensitivities. These commenters requested that the final rule require accommodations for people with electromagnetic intolerances, so that they might use Federal buildings and Federally-funded facilities. The Board acknowledges the challenges faced by individuals with electromagnetic sensitivities, and notes that electromagnetic sensitivities may be considered a disability under the ADA if the sensitivity so severely impairs the neurological, respiratory, or other functions of an individual that it substantially limits one or more of the individual’s major life activities.

However, most of the accommodations suggested by these commenters are beyond the scope of this rulemaking or our statutory jurisdiction. Moreover, none of our prior rulemaking notices i. Thus, were the Board to address electromagnetic sensitivity issues posed by ITC, this complex area would require thorough research and notice-and-comment rulemaking before being addressed through rulemaking. While the Access Board was in the process of updating its existing Standards and Guidelines, a similar process began in Europe to create the first European set of ICT accessibility standards.

In , the European Commission issued Mandate , which sought the assistance of several private European standards organizations in the development of European accessibility guidelines for public ICT procurements.

See European Comm. In early , the three European standardization organizations completed their development process by formally adopting and publishing the first European set of specifications on e-accessibility for public ICT procurements, EN Unlike the Standards, however, EN —by its own terms— establishes only non-binding, voluntary accessibility requirements for public ICT procurements. EN is thus now available to government officials in EU member states who may use it as technical specifications or award criteria in public procurements of ICT products and services.

In the final rule, the Board has made multiple changes that are similar to EN Both the final rule and EN address the functions of technology, rather than categories of technologies.

Similarly, both offer technical requirements and functional performance criteria for accessible ICT. For example, our use of the phrase “information and communication technology” ICT in the final rule, as a replacement of the existing term “electronic and information technology,” originates in the common usage of ICT throughout Europe and the rest of the world.

Moreover, both documents are organized in similar ways, in that they both have initial scoping and definitions chapters, followed by separate chapters containing technical requirements and functional performance criteria. Organizationally, the documents differ in several respects.

These general differences are outlined in Table 2 below:. For non-Web documents, we are explicit with the word substitution necessary, and provide an exception for the four problematic success criteria.

The NPRM delineated specific types of electronic content that Federal agencies would need to make accessible consistent with the technical requirements of the proposed rule. As explained in the NPRM, the Board proposed these provisions to further clarify the requirement in the existing Standards that Federal agencies make electronic information and data accessible to employees and members of the public. The Board noted confusion over what type of content was covered under the broad language of the existing Standards, and the difficulty that Federal agencies displayed in effectively meeting their obligations to provide accessible electronic content.

The NPRM specifically proposed that two discrete groups of content be covered by the refresh of the Standards. First, in proposed E Public-facing content refers to electronic information and data that a Federal agency makes available directly to the general public. The requirement to make accessible public-facing content is discussed below in Section IV. Second, in proposed E We sought comment in the NPRM on whether the proposed eight categories of non-public-facing content were sufficiently clear, and whether they provided sufficient accessibility without unnecessarily burdening agencies.

The Board further requested comment on whether a ninth category for “widely disseminated” electronic content should be included in the final rule.

Nine commenters responded to the proposed provision regarding non-public-facing electronic content proposed E In general, commenters agreed with the proposed approach requiring that only certain categories of non-public-facing content be made accessible, and most commenters found the categories to be sufficiently clear.

Another commenter, an ICT subject matter expert, requested clarification of the internal and external program and policy announcements category and suggested including an additional category for announcements sent to all employees.

An accessible ICT services provider was the only commenter to object to the eight categories, finding them too confusing and too difficult to implement. That commenter preferred that the requirement for accessibility of non-public-facing content be tied to the extent of the content’s distribution, and suggested that any document distributed to 50 or more individuals be made accessible.

Three other commenters responded to the NPRM’s question five as to whether a “widely disseminated” category should be added. One Federal agency opposed inclusion of this category, asserting that it would cause confusion. One ICT subject matter expert and one Federal agency generally liked the idea of such a category, but acknowledged that definitional challenges would make it difficult to implement.

The Federal agency supporting inclusion of the “widely disseminated” category indicated that the eight proposed categories would not sufficiently encompass the internal Web pages available to employees, and suggested that the problem could be solved with the addition of a ninth category for internal Web pages. This commenter asserted that without such a category for internal Web pages, agencies would need to develop systems to categorize internal Web page content, ensure that employees with disabilities could navigate to the covered content, and find a way to create an integrated accessible experience across internal Web sites where some content is accessible and some is not.

Upon careful consideration of the comments, we have decided to retain the proposed eight categories in the final rule and have added a ninth category for intranet content, as described below. Most commenters concurred with the proposed approach providing categories for non-public-facing content, and indicated that the categories were clearly described.

The Board, therefore, finds no reason to alter the eight proposed categories, and has retained them, as proposed, in the final rule. However, the Board did not intend for the use of these categories to exclude some intranet content; all intranet content is currently covered under the existing Standards.

Therefore, in the final rule, the Board has added a ninth category to final E The Board agrees with commenters that a “widely disseminated” standard would be difficult to define and implement in a consistent manner across agencies, and would likely cause confusion. The Board thus declines to add such a category to the final rule.

A discussion of the scoping of these requirements under the Revised Standards and Guidelines can be found below in Section IV. This approach stimulated the formation of an industry ad hoc working group aimed at determining the practicality of using WCAG 2. This working group analyzed each WCAG 2. Therefore, these Success Criteria can be applied directly as written to non-Web documents and software.

Of the remaining 12 Success Criteria, the working group found that 8 could be applied as written if certain Web-specific terms or phrases, e. The remaining four Success Criteria posed problems in being applied to non-Web content because they refer to “sets of Web pages. Applying these four criterion to non-Web documents and software would require interpretation that could inadvertently change the meaning of the requirements.

In their report, the working group concluded that circumstances in which those four Success Criteria could be applied outside the context of Web content would be “extremely rare. Sixteen commenters responded to the proposal of applying WCAG 2.

Six commenters five ICT companies and trade associations, and an ICT subject matter expert strongly advocated for returning to the previous approach of reprinting three variants of WCAG 2. These commenters asserted that agencies would not be able to consistently apply the WCAG 2. They were also concerned that by incorporating WCAG 2. Ten commenters four disability advocacy organizations, three academics, two individuals, and one ICT company generally supported applying WCAG 2.

One of these commenters explained that referencing WCAG 2. This commenter explained that there is much overlap between Web and non-Web content, for example an eBook is a document that also has Web components, software, and media.

This incorporation of WCAG 2. Based on the comments received and the findings of the working group, we have decided that agencies are better served by Standards that incorporate WCAG 2. The value of a single standard cannot be underestimated. We attempted to restate the WCAG 2. To address concerns expressed by some commenters and the working group regarding the application of a few WCAG 2.

Additionally, we added new provisions to instruct the reader when applying WCAG 2. These commenters recommended requiring conformance with provisions of WCAG 2. Additionally, this commenter explained that the WCAG 2.

The remaining commenters two individuals and a disability advocacy organization recommended clarification of the application of the proposed standard to non-Web documents and asserted a preference for requiring HTML documents instead of accessible PDFs, noting that accessible PDFs are not as useful as HTML documents.

WCAG 2. Therefore, the end user would still have to reference WCAG 2. Because WCAG 2. Therefore, in the final rule, we added a new provision expressly specifying that authoring tools capable of exporting PDF files must conform to PDF 1.

This provision is discussed in more detail in Section IV. The NPRM proposed to require that ICT providing real-time voice communication support real-time text RTT functionality and ensure the compatibility of multiline displays and features capable of text generation.

To accomplish this goal, the NPRM proposed to incorporate by reference specific standards for RTT interoperability in certain environments typically used in the United States proposed E Section 6. A sixth standard was proposed in section 6. In the preamble to the NPRM, we asked nine questions about text-based communications and the different standards the Board was considering incorporating.

Seven of the questions addressed RTT functionality and standards, and two of the questions sought information on costs. Seventeen commenters responded to the topic of RTT. While most of these commenters acknowledged the importance of RTT as a replacement for outdated Text Telephone TTY technology, there was minor disagreement from industry trade associations about whether RTT technology was sufficiently mature for deployment to replace TTYs.

Most commenters from industry, academia, and disability rights organizations agreed that RTT could be deployed, but disagreed about which standard to use for RTT operating in different systems. ICT manufacturers and ICT industry associations urged the Board not to adopt any specific standard for RTT, requesting that the final rule leave open the ability to use some future technology that may provide better functionality than existing environments. In response to the Board’s questions in the NPRM, several commenters supported broad deployment of RTT at all times, both in the Federal sector and in the private marketplace; however, one ICT industry commenter questioned the need or demand for the technology.

In response to our questions on cost, commenters from the ICT industry stated that RTT would not be cost-effective and would limit manufacturers flexibility. On the other hand, commenters from academia, research entities, and disability rights organizations described the benefits resulting from the implementation of RTT and the inherent cost savings in decreased use of relay services mandated under the ADA. As discussed above in Section I. Executive Summary — Purpose and Legal Authority , the FCC is responsible for enforcing Section and issuing implementing regulations; it is not bound to adopt the Access Board’s guidelines as its own or to use them as minimum requirements.

As the FCC had issued a notice of its intent to regulate in this area, the Board determined that it would reserve the issue of RTT in the final rule to be addressed in a future rulemaking. In December , shortly before publication of this final rule, the FCC issued a report and order establishing rules to facilitate telecommunication service providers’ transition from TTY to RTT.

The FCC RTT Order establishes, among other things, requirements that: facilitate telecommunications service providers’ transition from TTY technology to RTT technology that permits simultaneous voice and text on the same call using the same device; achieve interoperability adhering to RFC as a safe harbor standard; provide backwards compatibility with TTYs for a specified period; and support RTT transmissions to call centers and telecommunications relay centers.

The FCC RTT Order also incorporates a notice seeking input on the integration of these services into telecommunications relay services, and on the possible addition of RTT features for people with cognitive disabilities and people who are deaf-blind. The Access Board continues to monitor these proceedings and will update the Standards and Guidelines as appropriate.

The NPRM proposed that where technology provides a visual mode of operation, it must provide one mode of operation that magnifies, one mode that reduces the field of vision, and one mode that allows user control of contrast. As explained in the NPRM, the proposed FPC for limited vision was a significant departure from the FPC for limited vision in the existing Standards and Guidelines, which focused on accommodating a specific visual acuity.

In proposed The Board took a similar approach to the FPC for limited hearing proposed In question 17 the Board asked whether the requirements for magnification, reduction of field of vision, and user control of contrast should be more specific. The Board further requested that commenters provide a scientific basis for any recommended thresholds.

The Board received 11 comments on the proposed FPC for limited vision proposed The individual commenter and the ICT subject matter expert generally concurred with proposed The individual commenter suggested adding a “control of color” criteria so that users could choose a black background with white text.

The ICT subject matter expert asserted that the Board should include specific thresholds for the criteria, but did not provide suggestions for specific thresholds supported by research or data. The coalition of disability rights organizations appreciated the Board’s effort with respect to the limited vision FPC, but felt that the proposed provision missed the mark. The group pointed out that the proposed provision assumed a lack of accessibility, and without a baseline, could result in unnecessary magnification of content that is already sufficiently large, or reduction of a field of vision that is already sufficiently small for limited vision users.

The ICT companies and trade associations asserted that the proposed FPC for limited vision was too prescriptive, and was inconsistent with the level of specificity contained in the proposed FPCs for other disabilities. These commenters further noted that the FPC for limited vision imposed criteria not required by the technical requirements. One ICT company described how certain products could provide accessibility for people with limited vision without meeting the proposed criteria.

Some industry commenters noted that the proposed limited vision FPC was not technology-neutral and pointed to EN as a more useful model. These industry commenters noted that EN allows manufacturers the flexibility to include the limited vision accessibility features that are most applicable to a particular type of technology.

EN clause 4. ICT industry commenters further noted the benefits to manufacturers of harmonizing with international standards. Upon consideration of the comments regarding proposed The Board is persuaded that the technology-neutral approach advanced throughout this refresh of the Standards and Guidelines is equally appropriate with respect to the FPC.

The Board thus finds that harmonization with the language of EN is a reasonable approach to the limited vision FPC, and adopts this suggestion for the language of Therefore, we have revised final The proposed rule included a proposed FPC for limited hearing that closely mirrored the structure of the proposed limited vision FPC. ICT industry commenters, and a coalition of disability rights organizations, responded with the same issues that they presented with respect to the proposed limited vision FPC.

Specifically, they posited that the proposed limited hearing FPC would not necessarily provide a better functional experience for users with limited hearing.

An accessible ICT services provider, as well as an ICT trade association and two ICT companies, noted that the requirements for reduction of background noise and improvement of clarity would be difficult to define, measure, and achieve.

As with the proposed FPC for limited vision, ICT industry commenters indicated that harmonization with the language of EN would be technology-neutral and would give manufacturers the flexibility to develop accessibility features appropriate for their specific technology. Upon consideration of the comments, and in the interest of creating a consistent regulatory structure with respect to all of the FPC in the final rule, the Board agrees that harmonization with the international standard is appropriate for the limited hearing FPC.

Therefore, in the final rule, we have revised The existing Guidelines contain a FPC that expressly addresses operability of ICT by persons with cognitive, language, and learning disabilities. The existing Standards do not include a comparable provision. After considering comments received in response to the ANPRMs, the Board concurred that more research was needed before it could propose a meaningful FPC for limited cognitive ability.

A total of 11 commenters addressed the NPRM’s failure to include provisions specifically addressing ICT operability by persons with cognitive, language, or learning disabilities. These commenters included four individuals who identified themselves as either having a learning or cognitive disability, or having a family member with a learning or cognitive disability, one accessibility ICT services provider, one ICT subject matter expert, four disability advocacy organizations, and a coalition of disability rights organizations.

The overarching sentiment that the commenters expressed was that the proposed rule marginalized cognitive, language, and learning disabilities. Disability advocacy organizations, as well as individual commenters, provided general background information on the incidence of cognitive, language, and learning disabilities in the United States. They noted the significant portion of the United States population that is affected by a cognitive disability, and further noted that the incidence of cognitive disability in the United States is growing as the population ages.

Individual commenters described challenges using ICT that they or their family members face as a result of their cognitive disabilities. Five commenters including disability advocacy organizations, an ICT subject matter expert, an accessible ICT services provider, and a coalition of disability rights organizations criticized the Board for not including an FPC expressly directed to the needs of individuals with cognitive or learning disabilities.

Some of these commenters noted that while the Access Board’s proposed revision of the Standards and Guidelines was silent on cognitive accessibility, the European ICT accessibility standard, EN , addresses cognitive accessibility and provides adjustable timing, error indication and suggestion, and logical focus order as examples of relevant design features for people with cognitive disabilities. The commenter suggested that by eliminating references to specific disabilities, the FPC should equally address all disabilities, including cognitive disabilities.

After careful consideration of the comments, we are persuaded that the final rule should include an FPC for limited cognitive abilities. In light of the significant portion of the United States population that has cognitive, language, or learning disabilities, the Board finds that it would be inappropriate to exclude the needs of this population from the Revised Standards and Guidelines. The existing Guidelines contain an FPC for limited cognition. While evaluation of accessibility under this existing provision has posed some challenges, the Board nonetheless concludes that, given the significant population of Americans with limited cognitive, language, or learning abilities, it is important and appropriate to include an FPC addressing their accessibility needs in Chapter 3—which applies under both the Revised Standards and Guidelines.

Moreover, in an effort to maintain a consistent regulatory structure for the FPC in the final rule, the language for this FPC in the final rule seeks to harmonize with the FPC for limited cognition in EN Therefore, in the final rule, we have added a new section In addition to comments received on the major issues discussed in the preceding section, commenters also expressed views on a variety of other matters related to the proposed rule.

The Access Board’s response to significant comments on these other matters are discussed below on a chapter-by-chapter basis following the organization of the final rule. Also addressed below are requirements in the final rule that have been substantively revised from the proposed rule. Provisions in the final rule that neither received significant comment nor materially changed from the proposed rule are not discussed in this preamble.

Chapter 1 of the Revised Standards contains a general section that defines equivalent facilitation, addresses application of referenced standards, and provides definitions of terms used in the Standards. In the final rule, the provisions expressly incorporating the ten referenced standards into the Revised Standards have been relocated from proposed E to a new Chapter 7, which provides a centralized IBR section pursuant to regulations issued by the Office of the Federal Register OFR that govern incorporations by reference in the Federal Register.

We have also made minor changes to Chapter 1 in response to comments to improve clarity, accuracy, and ease of use. These changes are described below. The NPRM proposed this section in the interests of being explicit about dimensions.

We did not receive any comments on this provision but have decided, for the purpose of clarity and consistency with the Board’s other rulemakings, to add “with specific minimum or maximum end points” to E This section has been significantly reorganized and revised in the final rule. The general statements in the first two sentences regarding the application of referenced standards remain essentially unchanged from the proposed rule. However, the subsequent provisions in the proposed rule that expressly IBR the ten referenced standards into the Revised Standards i.

This reorganization of IBR provisions was made to comply with OFR regulations that govern incorporations by reference. See 1 CFR part Comments related to proposed incorporations by reference into the Revised Standards are discussed below in Section IV.

We identified seven comments regarding proposed E These commenters asked the Board to clarify the definitions of or provide examples for the following terms: “authoring tool,” “application,” “document,” “operable part,” “platform software,” “public facing,” and “software. After review of the comments, we have determined that we would be providing clearer information by including more terms, and we therefore added definitions for “document,” “non-Web document,” “non-Web software,” and “Web page” to the list of defined terms in E The definitions provided for these terms closely track the definitions used in WCAG 2.

For similar reasons of completeness, we also added the terms “software tools” and “variable message signs. The definition of “software” clarifies the term by giving the examples of applications, non-Web software, and platform software. The definition of “operable part” now makes clear that the term applies to physical parts hardware. Finally, the Board added definitions for “alteration” and “existing ICT,” which are new terms used in the safe harbor provision applicable to existing covered ICT E Additional discussion of these new terms appears below in section IV.

C Chapter 2: Scoping Requirements in the discussion of the safe harbor provision at E In response to the requests to align the definition for “authoring tool” to EN , the Board regards the two definitions as being equivalent, but has decided to retain the definition from the proposed rule due to editorial consideration.

The main difference between the approach taken in the proposed rule and that of EN is that the EN definition for “authoring tools” includes three notes containing advisory guidance. Our practice is to provide advisory guidance in supplemental materials. We have made multiple significant changes to this chapter. We added a ninth category to E We made corresponding changes to E These changes are discussed above in Section III. In addition, we made editorial changes for consistency and clarity.

These editorial changes and the responses to other comments received are discussed below. In response to some agencies’ concerns regarding the time and resources that might be needed to remediate existing legacy ICT, the Board has incorporated a “safe harbor” provision into the Revised Standards E Under this provision, legacy ICT that complies with the existing Standards and has not been altered after the compliance date i.

However, when existing ICT is altered after the compliance, such alterations must comply with the Revised Standards. This safe harbor provision applies on an “element-by-element” basis in that each component or portion of existing ICT is assessed separately.

In specifying “components or portions” of existing ICT, the safe harbor provision independently exempts those aspects of ICT that comply with the existing Standards from mandatory upgrade or modification after the final rule takes effect.

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