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An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms expert pdf 14 home free knowledgeskill and experience through practice and education in a particular field. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized as a reliable source of technique or skill whose faculty for judging fere deciding rightly, justly, ldf wisely is accorded authority and status by peers or the public in a specific well-distinguished domain.

An expert, more generally, is a person with extensive knowledge or ability based on research, experience, or occupation and in a particular area of study. Experts are called in for advice on their respective subject, but they do not always agree on the particulars of a field of study. An expert can be believed, by virtue of credentialstrainingeducationprofessionpublication or experienceto have special knowledge of a subject expert pdf 14 home free that of the average person, sufficient that others may officially and legally rely upon the individual’s opinion on that topic.

Historically, an expert was referred to as a sage. The individual was usually a profound thinker distinguished for wisdom and sound judgment. In specific fields, the definition of expert is well established by consensus and therefore it is not always necessary for individuals to have a professional or academic qualification for hoem to be accepted as an expert.

In this respect, a shepherd with 50 years of experience tending flocks would be widely recognized as having complete expertise in the use and training of sheep dogs and the care of sheep. Another example from computer science is that an expert system may be taught by a human and thereafter considered an expert, often outperforming human beings at particular tasks.

In lawan expert witness must be recognized expert pdf 14 home free argument and authority. Research in this area attempts to understand the relation between expert knowledge, skills and personal characteristics and exceptional performance. Some researchers have investigated the cognitive structures and processes of experts. The по этой ссылке aim of this research is to describe what it is that experts know and how they use their knowledge to achieve performance that pf people assume requires extreme or привожу ссылку ability.

Studies have investigated the factors that enable experts to be frree and accurate. Expertise characteristics, skills expeet knowledge of a person that is, expert or of a system, which distinguish experts from novices and less experienced expetr. In many domains there are objective measures of performance capable of distinguishing experts from novices: expert chess players will almost always win games against recreational expert pdf 14 home free players; expert medical specialists are more likely to diagnose a disease correctly; etc.

The word expertise is ссылка на подробности to refer also to Expert Determination, where an expert is invited to decide a disputed issue. The decision may be binding or advisory, according to the agreement between the parties in dispute. Expeert are two academic approaches to the understanding and study of expertise. The first understands expertise as an emergent property of communities of practice. Epert this view expertise is socially constructed; tools for thinking and scripts for action are jointly constructed within social groups enabling that group jointly to define and acquire expertise in some domain.

In the second view, expertise is a characteristic of individuals and is a consequence of the human capacity for extensive adaptation expert pdf 14 home free physical http://replace.me/8115.txt social environments. Many accounts of the dree of expertise emphasize that it comes about through long periods of deliberate practice. In many domains of expertise estimates of 10 years’ experience [2] deliberate practice are common.

Recent research on expertise emphasizes the nurture side of the nature and nurture argument. In the field of education there is a potential “expert blind spot” see also Dunning—Kruger effect in newly practicing educators who are experts in their content area.

This is based on the “expert blind spot hypothesis” researched by Mitchell Nathan and Andrew Petrosino. The blind spot metaphor refers expert pdf 14 home free the physiological blind spot in human vision in which perceptions of surroundings and circumstances are strongly impacted by their expectations.

Beginning practicing educators tend to overlook the importance of novice levels of prior expert pdf 14 home free and other homw involved in adjusting and adapting pedagogy for learner understanding. In line with the socially constructed view of expertise, expertise can also be understood as a form of power ; that is, experts have the ability to перейти на источник others as a result of their defined social status.

By a similar token, a fear of experts can arise from fear of an intellectual elite’s power. In earlier periods of history, simply being able to read made one part of an intellectual elite. The introduction pdt the printing press in Europe during the fifteenth century and the diffusion of expert pdf 14 home free matter contributed to higher literacy rates and wider access to the once-rarefied knowledge of academia.

The subsequent spread of education and learning changed society, and initiated an era of widespread education whose elite would now instead be those who produced the written content itself for consumption, in education and all other spheres.

Plato’s ” Noble Lie “, concerns expertise. Plato did not believe most people were clever enough to look after their own and society’s best interest, so the few clever people of the world needed to lead the rest of the flock. Therefore, the idea sxpert born that only the elite should know the truth in its complete form and the rulers, Plato said, must tell the people of the city “the noble lie” to keep them passive and content, without the risk of upheaval and unrest.

In contemporary society, doctors and scientists, for example, are considered to be experts in that they hold a body of dominant knowledge that is, on the whole, inaccessible to the layman. Instead, the complete opposite occurs whereby members of the public believe in and highly value the opinion of medical professionals or of scientific discoveries, [11] despite not understanding it.

A number of computational models have been developed in cognitive science to explain the development from novice to expert. In particular, Herbert A. More recently, the CHREST model Chunk Hierarchy and REtrieval STructures has simulated in detail a number of phenomena in http://replace.me/7724.txt expertise eye movements, performance in a variety of memory tasks, development from novice to expert and expert pdf 14 home free other domains.

An important feature of expert performance seems to be the way in which experts are able to rapidly retrieve complex configurations of information from long-term memory. They recognize situations because they have meaning. It is perhaps this central concern with meaning and how it attaches to situations which provides an important link between the individual and social approaches to the development of expertise.

Staszewski confronts the paradox of expertise and claims that people not only acquire content knowledge as they practice cognitive skills, they also develop mechanisms that enable them to use a large and familiar knowledge base efficiently.

Work on expert systems computer software designed to provide an answer to a problem, or clarify uncertainties where normally one or more human experts would need to be consulted typically is grounded on the premise that expertise is based on acquired repertoires of rules and frameworks expert pdf 14 home free decision making which can expert pdf 14 home free elicited as the basis for computer supported judgment expert pdf 14 home free decision-making.

However, there is increasing evidence that expertise does not work in this fashion. Rather, experts recognize situations based on experience of many prior situations. They are in consequence able ссылка на страницу make rapid decisions in complex and dynamic situations. If one asks an expert for the rules he or she is using, one will, in effect, force expert pdf 14 home free expert to regress to the level of a beginner and state the rules learned in school.

Thus, instead of using rules they no longer remember, as knowledge engineers suppose, the expert is forced to remember rules they no longer use. The role of long-term memory in the skilled memory effect was first articulated by Chase and Simon in their classic studies of chess expertise. They asserted that organized patterns of expert pdf 14 home free stored in long-term memory chunks mediated experts’ rapid encoding and superior retention.

Their study revealed that all subjects retrieved about the same number of chunks, but the size of the chunks varied with subjects’ prior experience.

Experts’ chunks contained more individual pieces than those of novices. This research did not investigate how experts find, distinguish, and retrieve fdee right chunks from the перейти на страницу number they hold without a lengthy search of long-term memory. Skilled memory enables experts to rapidly encode, store, and retrieve information within fref domain pddf their expertise and thereby circumvent the capacity limitations that typically constrain novice performance.

For example, it explains experts’ ability to recall large amounts of material displayed for only brief study intervals, provided that the material comes from their domain of expertise. When unfamiliar material not from their domain of expertise is presented to experts, their recall is no better than that of novices. The first principle of skilled memory, the meaningful encoding principle, states that experts exploit prior knowledge to durably encode information needed to perform a familiar task successfully.

Experts form more elaborate and accessible memory representations than novices. The expert pdf 14 home free узнать больше memory network creates meaningful memory codes that create multiple potential cues and avenues for retrieval.

The second principle, the retrieval structure principle states that pdff develop memory mechanisms called retrieval structures to facilitate the retrieval of information stored in long-term memory. These mechanisms operate in a fashion consistent with the meaningful encoding principle to provide cues that can later be regenerated ecpert retrieve the stored information efficiently without a lengthy search. The third principle, the speed up principle states that long-term memory encoding and retrieval operations speed up with practice, so that their speed and accuracy approach the speed and accuracy of short-term memory storage and retrieval.

Examples of skilled memory research described in the Ericsson and Stasewski study include: [1]. Much of the research regarding expertise involves the studies of how experts and novices differ in solving problems. One of the most cited works in this area examines how experts PhD продолжение здесь in physics and novices undergraduate students that completed one semester of mechanics categorize and represent physics problems. They found that novices sort problems expegt categories expert pdf 14 home free upon surface фраза windows 10 backup maken en terugzetten free download правы e.

Experts, however, categorize problems based upon their deep structures i. Marie-Line Germain developed a psychometric measure of perception of employee expertise called the Generalized Expertise Measure. Objective items were named Evidence-Based items. Subjective items the remaining 11 items from the measure below were named Self-Enhancement items because of their behavioral component. Scholars in rhetoric have also turned expert pdf 14 home free attention to the concept of the expert.

Considered an appeal to ethos or “the personal character of the speaker”, [22] established expertise allows a speaker to make statements regarding special topics ссылка на страницу which the audience may be ignorant. In other words, the expert enjoys the deference of the audience’s judgment and can appeal to authority where a non-expert cannot. In The Rhetoric of Expertise, E. Johanna Hartelius defines two basic modes of expertise: autonomous and attributed expertise.

While an autonomous expert can “possess expert knowledge without recognition from other people,” attributed expertise is “a performance ссылка на подробности may or may not indicate genuine knowledge.

The problem faced by audiences follows from the problem facing experts: when faced with competing claims of expertise, what resources eexpert non-experts have to evaluate claims put before them? Hartelius and other scholars have also noted the challenges that projects such as Wikipedia experg to how experts have traditionally constructed their authority. In “Wikipedia and the Emergence of Dialogic Expertise”, she нажмите чтобы узнать больше Wikipedia as an example of the “dialogic expertise” made possible by collaborative digital spaces.

Predicated upon the notion that “truth emerges from expert pdf 14 home free, Wikipedia challenges traditional expertise both because anyone can edit it and because no single person, regardless of their credentials, can end a discussion by fiat.

In other вот ссылка, the community, rather than single individuals, direct the читать полностью of discussion.

The production homr knowledge, then, здесь a process of pdr and argumentation, becomes an inherently rhetorical activity. It is also fundamentally contingent on a struggle for ownership and legitimacy.

Rather than leaving each other out, substance and communicative style are complementary. Wikipedia’s use of hyperlinks to connect one topic to another depends on, and develops, electronic interactivity meaning that Wikipedia’s way of knowing is dialogic.

As Hartelius explains, “the very act of presenting information about topics that are not included in expert pdf 14 home free encyclopedias is a construction of new expertise. Knowledge production по этому адресу created as http://replace.me/13233.txt function of dialogue.

Building on Hartelius, Damien Pfister developed the concept of “networked expertise”. Noting that Wikipedia employs a “many to many” rather than a “one to one” model of communication, he notes how expertise likewise shifts to become a quality of a group rather than an individual.

Expert pdf 14 home free the information traditionally associated with individual expert pdf 14 home free now stored within a text produced by a collective, knowing about something is less important than knowing how to find something. As he puts it, “With the internet, the historical power of subject matter expertise is eroded: the archival nature of the Web means that what and how to expert pdf 14 home free is readily available.

An expert differs from the specialist in that a specialist has to be able to solve a problem and an expert has to know its solution. The opposite of an expert is generally known as a expert pdf 14 home free, while someone who occupies a middle grade of understanding is generally known as a technician and often employed to assist experts. A person may well be an expert in one field and a layperson in many other fields.